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What are the three domains of life?
Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya.
Which domains contain prokaryotic organisms?
Archaea and Bacteria.
What is a key difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?
Prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus, while eukaryotic cells have a membrane-bound nucleus.
What are Bergey's Manuals used for?
They are standard references for identifying and classifying prokaryotes.
What are some methods used to identify bacteria?
Biochemical tests, DNA/RNA analysis, and serological testing.
How are viruses classified?
Based on viral genetics, chemistry, morphology, and mechanism of multiplication.
What system is used to classify viruses based on their genomes?
The Baltimore classification system.
What is a key component of bacterial cell walls?
Peptidoglycan.
What are plasmids?
Small loops of DNA in prokaryotes that may contain non-essential genes.
Name a structure in prokaryotic cells that contains polymerized inorganic phosphate.
Volutin (or metachromatic granule).
What is the function of the endomembrane system in eukaryotic cells?
It is required by eukaryotic cells to compartmentalize functions and perform complex processes.
What is the function of the peroxisomes?
They typically produce hydrogen peroxide to break down molecules.
What is the central dogma of molecular biology?
DNA is transcribed to RNA, which is translated to protein.
What is the function of DNA polymerase?
Synthesizes DNA during replication.
What is transcription?
The process of synthesizing RNA from a DNA template.
What is translation?
The process of synthesizing proteins from an mRNA template.
What are mutations?
Changes in the DNA sequence.
What is horizontal gene transfer?
The transfer of genetic material between prokaryotes, often done through plasmids.
What are operons?
A cluster of genes that are regulated together.
What is the function of DNA gyrase?
It relaxes the supercoiled chromosome to make DNA more accessible for replication.
Are viruses cellular or acellular?
Acellular.
What are the main components of a virus?
Proteins and genetic material (DNA or RNA).
What are capsids?
Protein coats that surround the viral genome.
Name three capsid shapes.
Helical, polyhedral, and complex.
What is a bacteriophage?
A virus that infects bacteria.
What is the lytic cycle?
A viral replication cycle that involves lysis of the host cell.
What is the lysogenic cycle?
A viral replication cycle in which viral DNA is incorporated into the host genome.
How do retroviruses replicate?
They use reverse transcriptase to make DNA from RNA.
What is a virion?
A complete, infectious virus particle.
What are spikes?
Glycoproteins used by viruses to bind to host cells.
What are cytopathic effects?
Cell abnormalities resulting from a viral infection.
What does the term obligate intracellular parasite mean?
An organism that can only reproduce inside a host cell.
How do viruses gain entry to cells?
Through binding of viral proteins to cell receptors, causing membrane fusion or endocytosis.
How are viral diseases classified?
Using ICD codes.
What is a pure culture?
A culture containing only one species of microorganism.
What is agar used for in microbiology?
A solidifying agent in growth media for culturing microbes.
What is a brightfield microscope?
A microscope that produces a darker image on a lighter background.
What is a darkfield microscope?
A microscope that produces a brighter image on a darker background.
What does a phase-contrast microscope do?
Uses refraction and interference to create high contrast images of unstained cells.
What are fluorochromes?
Fluorescent molecules that absorb and emit light.
What is a positive stain?
A stain that colors the structure of interest.
What is a negative stain?
A stain that colors the background and leaves the microbe colorless.
What is the Gram stain used for?
To differentiate bacteria based on cell wall structure, gram + and gram -.
What is an acid-fast stain used for?
A type of staining diagnostic for Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
What is binary fission?
The process of cell division in bacteria.
What is generation time?
The doubling time of a microbial population.
Name the four phases of microbial growth in a closed system.
Lag, logarithmic (exponential), stationary, and death.
What are biofilms?
Complex communities of microbes attached to a surface.
What is quorum sensing?
A way bacteria communicate and coordinate activities.
What is sterilization?
The process of killing or removing all microorganisms.
What is disinfection?
A process that removes potential pathogens from a fomite.
What is an antiseptic?
A chemical agent that kills or inhibits growth on living tissue.
What is a disinfectant?
A chemical agent used to kill or inhibit growth on inanimate objects.
Name two physical methods of controlling microbes.
Heat (e.g., autoclaving) and radiation (e.g., UV).
Name two chemical methods of controlling microbes.
Disinfectants and antiseptics.
What are fomites?
Inanimate objects that harbor and transmit microbes.
What does the term bactericidal mean?
Kills bacteria.
What does the term bacteriostatic mean?
Inhibits growth of bacteria.
What are the four biosafety levels (BSLs)?
BSL-1, BSL-2, BSL-3, and BSL-4.
What is degerming?
The process of removing microbes from a limited area.
What is metabolism?
The sum of all chemical reactions in a cell.
What is catabolism?
The breakdown of complex molecules to release energy.
What is anabolism?
The synthesis of complex molecules from simpler ones, which requires energy.
What is cellular respiration?
A metabolic process that uses oxygen to produce ATP.
What is fermentation?
An anaerobic metabolic process that produces ATP but not as efficiently as cellular respiration.
What are some products of fermentation?
Acids, alcohols, and gases.
What are biochemical tests used for?
To identify microbes based on their metabolic activities.
What is the purpose of API test panels?
To identify bacteria according to their biochemical characteristics.
What are chemotrophs?
Microbes that obtain energy from chemical compounds.
What are phototrophs?
Microbes that obtain energy from light.
What is a biogeochemical cycle?
The recycling of chemical elements by microorganisms.
What is a pathogen?
A disease-causing microorganism.
What is an infectious disease?
A disease caused by a pathogen.
What is a contagious disease?
An infectious disease that is easily spread from person to person.
What are signs of a disease?
Objective, measurable indicators of a disease.
What are symptoms of a disease?
Subjective experiences reported by the patient.
What is an endemic disease?
A disease that is constantly present in a population.
What is an epidemic disease?
A disease that occurs in a larger-than-normal number of cases in a population.
What is a pandemic disease?
An epidemic that occurs on a global scale.
What is incidence?
The number of new cases of a disease in a given time period.
What is prevalence?
The total number of cases of a disease in a population at a given time.
What are Koch's postulates?
A set of criteria to establish the causative agent of a disease.
What is a vector?
A living organism that transmits a pathogen.
What is a fomite?
A nonliving object that transmits a pathogen.
What are normal microbiota?
Microorganisms that normally reside in or on a host.
What is symbiosis?
A relationship between two or more organisms.
What are opportunistic pathogens?
Pathogens that cause disease when the host is immunocompromised.
What is a virulence factor?
A characteristic of a microbe that allows it to cause disease.
Name three virulence factors.
Capsules, exoenzymes, and toxins.
What are exotoxins?
Toxic proteins secreted by bacteria.
What is endotoxin?
The lipopolysaccharide (LPS) component of the outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria that causes a toxic response.
What is a capsule and how does it help a pathogen?
An external layer that surrounds the pathogen, protecting it from phagocytosis.
What are biofilms in terms of virulence?
They are more resistant to antimicrobial drugs and host defenses.
What is innate immunity?
Nonspecific defenses that are present at birth.
What is adaptive immunity?
Specific defenses that develop in response to exposure to antigens.
What are phagocytes?
Cells that engulf and destroy pathogens.
What are cytokines?
Small signaling proteins used in immune responses.
What are antigens?
Molecules that induce an immune response.
What are antibodies?
Proteins that bind to antigens and facilitate their destruction.
What are T cells?
A type of lymphocyte involved in cellular immunity.
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