Politics Paper 1 Edexcel

What is direct democracy?

A democracy where people are not represented by representatives acting on their behalf.

What is representative democracy?

When individuals select a person, or political party to act on their behalf to exercise political choice.

What are the similarities between direct and representative democracy?

Both are forms of democracy.

Both have citizens involved in the political process.

What are the differences between direct and representative democracy?

Direct democracy involves people expressing their opinions themselves. Representative democracy involves electing someone to act on your behalf.

Direct democracy is used in referendums. Representative democracy is used in elections.

Citizens have a more direct role in decision-making in direct democracy. With representative democracy, elected officials make decisions on behalf of the people.

Direct democracy is more feasible for small communities, whereas representative democracy is better for larger communities.

Advantages/disadvantages of direct democracy

ADVANTAGES:

More direct role for citizens.

Can lead to greater participation and engagement politically.

Promotes transparency and accountability.

DISADVANTAGES:

More feasible for smaller communities.

Time consuming and expensive organising referendums.

Can lead to tyranny of the majority, where minority groups may not be adequately represented.

Advantages/disadvantages of representative democracy

ADVANTAGES:

Practical for large communities.

Allows citizens to elect someone to act on their behalf, who has experience and skills.

Elected officials can be held accountable for their decisions.

DISADVANTAGES:

Elected officials may not accurately represent the views of their constituents.

Political parties may have too much influence over the decision-making process.

Voter turnout can be low, potentially leading to a democratic deficit where elected officials don't have a strong mandate.

1832 Great Reform Act

Widened the franchise.

Extended the right to vote to men who owned property worth at least £10 per year.

1918 Representation of the People Act

Right to vote to women over 30 who had certain property qualifications and all men over 21.

1928 Representation of the People Act

Extended the vote to all women over 21, regardless of property qualifications.

1969 Representation of the People Act

Extended the right to vote to all UK citizens over the age of 18.

Who were the suffragettes?

Woman Suffrage movement 19th-20th century.

Used civil action and disobedience to draw attention to their cause, securing the right to vote for women.

Suffragette example

Kings horse race and Emily Davidson.

She tried to grab the king's horse and pin a banner on it but ended up getting trampled by the horse and died.

Votes at 16 coalition

A group run by several different campaign groups, such as the National Union of Students (NUS) and The British Youth Council.

Want to lower the voting age to 16.

Pressure groups and lobbying

Pressure groups can lobby politicians or government officials to try to persuade them to adopt policies or take action on a particular issue.

Pressure groups and direct action

Pressure groups use direct action tactics like protests, sit-ins, or strikes to draw attention to their cause and put pressure on decision-makers.

Pressure groups and media campaigns

Pressure groups can use the media to raise awareness of their issue and gain public support.

Pressure groups and legal action

Pressure groups can take legal action against the government or other organisations to try to achieve their goals.

What is a think-tank?

Bodies of experts brought together to collectively focus on certain topics to investigate.

They investigate and offer solutions to often complicated and seemingly intractable economic, social or political issues.

They can be used by governments as sources of expertise and policy advice (government advisor).

What is a lobbyist?

Someone who is paid by clients to try to influence the government or MPs or members of the Lords to act in their client's interests, particularly when legislation is under consideration.

Work for clients such as corporations, non-profit organisations and interest groups.

How can corporations influence the government?

Using lobbyists.

Campaign contributions to political candidates funding candidates sharing their interests.

Economic power, as they can threaten to move investment or jobs from a region in the UK if they are not favourably treated by the government.

What was the Magna Carta?

Established certain rights and protections for English nobles and freemen.

Agreed to by King John of England (1215).

Established that even the king was subject to the law and could not act arbitrarily.

Created the right to a fair trial and protection against arbitrary imprisonment.

What was the Human Rights Act 1998?

Incorporated the European Convention of Human Rights into UK law.

Introduced rights such as the right to life, freedom of expression, and protection against torture and inhuman or degrading treatment.

Established a mechanism for individuals to bring claims before UK courts if they believe their rights have been violated.

Some argue it has given too much power to judges and undermined parliamentary sovereignty. However, it has also helped to protect individual rights and respect for human dignity.

What was the Equality Act 2010?

Aimed to promote equality and prevent discrimination on the introduction of protected characteristics.

Characteristics protected are age, disability, gender reassignment, marriage, civil partnership, pregnancy and maternity, race, religion or belief, sex and sexual orientation.

Prohibits discrimination on the basis of these characteristics with employment, education and access to goods/services.

Require public authorities to take steps to promote equality and eliminate discrimination, such as through assessments when developing policies or making decisions that may affect different groups in different ways.

Liberty contemporary civil liberty pressure group 1

UK-based human rights organisation (pressure group).

Advocates for civil liberties and human rights protections.

Has campaigned against the use of mass surveillance by government agencies as they claim this violates individual privacy and freedom of expression.

Involved in legal challenges related to immigration detention, police powers and counter-terrorism measures.

In 2019, they launched a legal challenge against the UK government's use of facial recognition technology by police forces, arguing that this violates privacy and freedom of expression rights.

Examples of the extent, limits and tensions within the UK's rights-based culture

The tension between freedom of expression and hate speech.

The tension between individual privacy and national security.

The tension between religious freedom and equality.

The tension between property rights and the environment.

What is meant by the tension between freedom of expression and hate speech?

Freedom of expression is an important right, but it can come into conflict with protections against hate speech.

Some argue that for certain forms of speech, like racist or homophobic language, should not be protected under free speech laws.

What is meant by the tension between individual privacy and national security?

In the wake of terrorist attacks like 9/11 in the US / Manchester arena bombing, governments may seek to increase surveillance or limit individual privacy in order to protect national security.

This comes into conflict with individual rights to privacy and freedom from government intrusion.

What is meant by the tension between religious freedom and equality?

While individuals have a right to practice their religion freely, this can come into conflict with protections against discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity.

For example, some religious groups may object to providing services for same-sex weddings or transgender individuals.

What is meant by the tension between property rights and environmental protection?

While individuals have a right to own property, this can come into conflict with efforts to protect the environment.

For example, a landowner may want to develop their property in a way which harms local ecosystems or wildlife habitats.

What is pluralist democracy?

A type of democracy in which a government makes decisions as a result of the interplay of various ideas and contrasting arguments from competing groups and organisations.

What is meant by democratic deficit?

A flaw in the democratic process where decisions are taken by people who lack legitimacy, not having been appointed with sufficient democratic input or subject to accountability.

What is meant by legitimacy?

Those that hold power have to right to do so as they have been chosen or appointed through a process which is widely accepted as fair and just.

What is meant by the participation crisis UK?

A lack of engagement by a significant number of citizens to relate to the political process either by choosing not to vote or to join/become members of political parties or offer themselves to public office.

Turnout in UK general elections has been declining since the 1950s, with only 2/3rds of eligible voters participating in recent elections

2019 election turnout = 67.3%, higher than previous elections but still lower than historical levels.

Membership in political parties has declined significantly. In the 1950s, around 3% of the UK population were members of political parties. Today, less than 1% are. This decline in party membership has also led to a decline in party activism and engagement among citizens.

What is suffrage?

The ability/right to vote in public elections.

What is the franchise?

The ability/right to vote in public elections. Is used interchangeably with suffrage and often the number of people eligible to vote.

Influence of the media party success

Some argue media coverage can significantly impact a parties success by shaping public opinion.

E.g. Tony Blairs friendship with Rupert Murchdoch's news Corporation was seen as a factor in his electoral success (when he was PM).

However, others believe the media is not as influential as some believe. Voters are influenced by a variety of factors beyond media coverage, such as personal experience and social networks.

There is clear debate here about the influence of the media, but there are also other factors affecting party success and performance in elections.

FPTP - First Past The Post

An electoral system where the person with the most number of votes is elected. Victory is achieved by having one more vote than other contenders - it is also called a plurality system.

Used in GEs and some local elections.

Advantages of FPTP

Produces a clear and decisive result, with a single winner.

It is simple and easy to understand.

Disadvantages of FPTP

Can lead to disproportionate representation, where parties with significant support across the country may not win many seats.

Discourages voters from supporting smaller parties, as they may feel their vote will be wasted if their preferred candidate has no chance of winning.

AMS - Additional Member System

A hybrid electoral system that has two components or elements. The voter makes two choices. Firstly, the voter selects a representative on a simple plurality (FPTP) system then a second vote is apportioned to a party list for a second or 'additional' representative.

This additional representative is for their region, not constituency, and regional seats are allocated to parties based on the no. of votes received.

Used in the Scottish Parliament, Welsh Assembly and London Assembly elections.

Advantages of AMS

Combines benefits of both FPTP and proportional representation, producing clear winners and proportionate representation.

Encourages smaller parties, as voters can support them with their second vote without feeling like their first vote is wasted.

Disadvantages of AMS

Can lead to confusion among voters, who may not fully understand how the system works.

It can result in the over-representation of larger parties, as they are more likely to win seats through both FPTP and the additional member system.

STV - Single Transferable Vote

an electoral system that allows voters to rank their voting preferences in numerical order rather than simply having one voting choice. In order to obtain a seat, a candidate must obtain a quota. After the votes are cast, those with the least votes are eliminated and their votes transferred and those candidates with excess votes above the quota also have their votes transferred (reallocating votes from candidates who have been eliminated to other candidates over quota based on the voters second or third preferences.

Used in Northern Ireland for local gov. elections and European Parliament elections.

Advantages of STV

Produces more proportional results than FPTP.

Allows voters to express their preferences more fully, as they can rank candidates in order of preference.

Disadvantages of STV

Can be complex and difficult for voters to understand.

Vote counting can be time consuming and complicated.

SV - Supplementary Vote

An electoral system that allows voters to make two choices. If one candidate obtains over 50% on the first vote then the contest is complete. If no candidate attains this level, all but the top two candidates are eliminated. Then the supplementary choices are re-distributed and whoever gets most votes from the remaining two, wins the seat.

Used in UK mayoral and police and crime commissioner elections until it was ended by the Elections Act 2022.

Advantages of SV

Ensures the winning candidate has a majority of votes.

Allows voters to express their preferences more fully, as they can indicate a second choice.

Disadvantages of SV

Can lead to tactical voting, as voters may choose their second vote strategically rather than based on their true preferences.

Can be complex or difficult for voters to understand.

What was the Elections Act 2022 and its affect on SV?

The Elections Act 2022 made changes to the voting system for mayoral elections in England and Police and Crime Commissioner elections in England and Wales. From May 2023, these elections will use the first past the post system. Previously, these elections used the Supplementary Vote (SV) system, where voters could choose a first and second choice vote. Now, voters will choose a single candidate on the ballot paper. This is the same system as UK Parliamentary elections and local elections in England.

Also made it so you need an id to vote.

How are referendums used in the UK?

Have been used in the UK since 1997. They are a form of direct democracy that allows citizens to vote on a specific issue or policy. Referendums can be initiated by the government, political parties, or through citizen-led campaigns.

Used in the UK to decide on issues such as Scottish independence, Brexit, and changes to the voting system. The impact of referendums on UK political life has been significant, with some arguing that they have increased public engagement and participation in politics, while others argue that they can be divisive and undermine representative democracy.

Some argue that referendums are an important tool for holding politicians accountable and ensuring that citizens have a direct say in important decisions. Others argue that they can be manipulated by powerful interest groups or lead to simplistic binary choices that do not reflect the complexity of issues at hand.

Brexit Referendum 2016

Held on June 23, 2016, and it asked voters whether the United Kingdom should remain a member of the European Union or leave the EU.

Narrow victory for the Leave campaign, with 51.9% of voters choosing to leave the EU and 48.1% choosing to remain. The turnout for the referendum was high, with over 30 million people casting their votes.

Some of the key factors that contributed to calls for a referendum included concerns about immigration, sovereignty, and economic policy.

Additionally, some politicians saw an opportunity to capitalize on anti-EU sentiment among certain segments of the population in order to gain political power.

Scottish Independence Referendum 2014

Held on September 18, 2014, and it asked voters whether Scotland should become an independent country or remain part of the United Kingdom.

The referendum resulted in a victory for the No campaign, with 55.3% of voters choosing to remain in the UK and 44.7% choosing independence. The turnout for the referendum was also high, with over 84% of eligible voters casting their ballots.

The result of the referendum had significant political consequences for both Scotland and the UK, including changes in devolution policies and increased calls for Scottish independence.

Some of the key factors that contributed to calls for a referendum included concerns about Scotland's ability to govern itself effectively within the UK, disagreements over economic policy, and cultural differences between Scotland and England.

Why are referendums good In a representative democracy like the UK?

Can be seen as a way to increase direct participation and engagement in the democratic process.

Can also provide a way for elected representatives to gauge public opinion on complex or controversial issues, helping to inform their decision-making processes.

Why are referendums bad In a representative democracy like the UK?

Concerns about the potential for misinformation or manipulation of public opinion.

Risk of oversimplifying complex issues.

Why are different electoral systems used throughout the UK?

Historical: different regions and countries within the UK have developed their own political traditions and institutions over time, which can influence the way elections are conducted.

Political: different electoral systems can be seen as more or less fair or effective depending on one's perspective, and different parties or interest groups may have different preferences for how elections should be conducted.

Practical considerations: the size of the electorate, the number of candidates running for office, or the complexity of the issues being voted on that can influence which electoral system is deemed most appropriate for a given election.

Turnout in General Elections

Voter turnout for general elections in the UK has been decreasing since the 1997 general election. For example, the turnout for the 2019 general election was just over 67%, which was lower than any general election between 1997 and 2010.

Turnout for Referendums

Voter turnout for referendums in the UK has generally been increasing over the past few decades. For example, the turnout for the Brexit referendum in 2016 was over 72%, which was higher than any general election since 1992.

Could be seen as more important due to specific issues which could end up being controversial (Brexit).

General figures on turnout

The turnout for the Scottish independence referendum in 2014 was over 84%, which was higher than any general election since 1950.

The turnout for the EU referendum in 1975 was just over 64%, which was higher than any general election between 1966 and 1979.

The turnout for the AV referendum in 2011 was just over 42%, which was lower than any general election since universal suffrage was introduced in the UK.

FPTP affect on government appointed and the type of government appointed.

A plurality system where the candidate with the most votes in each constituency wins.

This system tends to favor larger parties and can result in a "winner-takes-all" outcome where smaller parties are underrepresented or shut out entirely.

For example, in the 2019 general election, the Conservative Party won 43.6% of the vote but secured 56% of seats in Parliament due to its strong performance in FPTP constituencies.

Leads two a two party dominance system (Labour + Conservatives).

Arguably tyranny of the majority.

SV affect on government appointed and the type of government appointed.

A preferential system where voters rank their top two choices for a given office.

If no candidate receives a majority of first-choice votes, all but the top two candidates are eliminated and their second-choice votes are redistributed until one candidate has a majority.

This system tends to favor candidates who can appeal to a broad range of voters rather than those with strong partisan support.

For example, in the 2016 London mayoral election, Sadiq Khan won on second preferences after receiving fewer first-choice votes than his opponent Zac Goldsmith.

STV affect on government appointed and the type of government appointed.

A proportional representation system where voters rank candidates by preference and seats are allocated based on a formula that takes into account both first-preference votes and transfers from eliminated candidates.

This system tends to favor smaller parties and can result in more diverse representation than FPTP.

For example, in the 2017 Northern Ireland Assembly election, Sinn Féin won 27% of first-preference votes but secured 28% of seats due to its strong performance under STV.

Can lead to extremist party representation or coalitions.

AMS affect on government appointed and the type of government appointed.

A hybrid system that combines FPTP with a proportional representation component.

Voters cast two ballots: one for a candidate in their constituency using FPTP, and one for a party list using proportional representation.

This system tends to favor larger parties in the FPTP component but can provide more proportional representation overall.

For example, in the 2016 Scottish Parliament election, the Scottish National Party won 46.5% of first-preference votes but secured 63% of seats overall due to its strong performance under AMS.

FPTP affect on voter choice and representation

In the 2019 UK general election, the Conservative Party won 43.6% of the vote but secured 56% of seats in Parliament due to its strong performance in FPTP constituencies.

Meanwhile, smaller parties like the Brexit Party won 2% of the vote but did not secure any seats due to their poor performance in FPTP constituencies.

FPTP favours large party dominance, making it very hard for smaller parties to compete.

Narrows voter choice as voters feel their votes are wasted.

SV affect on voter choice and representation

It may still tend to favor larger parties or candidates who can appeal to a broad range of voters.

For example, in the 2016 London mayoral election, Sadiq Khan won on second preferences after receiving fewer first-choice votes than his opponent Zac Goldsmith.

Khan received 44.2% of first-choice votes compared to Goldsmith's 35%, but ultimately won with 57% of the vote after second-preference votes were counted.

STV affect on voter choice and representation

More proportional representation and can allow for greater voter choice by giving voters more options and allowing them to rank candidates by preference.

This can benefit smaller parties or independent candidates who might not have a chance under FPTP.

For example, in the 2017 Northern Ireland Assembly election, several smaller parties and independents were able to win seats under STV.

The Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) won the most first-preference votes with 28%, followed by Sinn Féin with 27%.

However, the final seat distribution was more proportional, with the DUP winning 28% of seats and Sinn Féin winning 28% of seats.

A lot of voter choice, as smaller parties can compete effectivley.

AMS affect on voter choice and representation

More proportional representation overall and allow for greater voter choice by combining FPTP with a proportional representation component.

However, it may still tend to favor larger parties in the FPTP component and can be more complex for voters to understand than other systems.

For example, in the 2016 Scottish Parliament election, several smaller parties were able to win seats through the proportional representation component of AMS.

The Scottish National Party (SNP) won the most first-past-the-post constituencies with 59 out of 73 seats, but only won 4 out of 56 regional list seats.

Meanwhile, smaller parties like the Scottish Greens and Scottish Liberal Democrats were able to win multiple seats through the regional list component despite not winning any first-past-the-post constituencies.

This allowed for a more proportional distribution of seats in Parliament and gave voters more options beyond just the major parties.

What is a safe-seat?

A constituency where the incumbent party has a large majority and is expected to win the election by a significant margin.

For example, in the 2019 UK general election, the Labour Party won the constituency of Islington North with 62% of the vote, making it a safe seat for Labour.

What is a marginal seat?

A constituency where the incumbent party has a small majority and is at risk of losing the election to another party.

For example, in the 2019 UK general election, the Conservative Party won the constituency of Chipping Barnet with only 50.7% of the vote, making it a marginal seat that could potentially be won by another party in future elections.

What is a minority government?

When no single party has enough seats to form a majority government on its own.

The governing party must rely on support from other parties or independent MPs to pass legislation and stay in power.

In the 2017 UK general election, no single party won a majority of seats in Parliament.

The Conservative Party won the most seats but fell short of a majority, forming a minority government that relied on support from the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) to pass legislation.

This was the first time since 1974 that the UK had a minority government.

What is a coalition government?

When two or more parties agree to work together and form a joint government.

The parties typically negotiate an agreement over policy options and office of state before forming the coalition.

In the 2010 UK general election, no single party won a majority of seats in Parliament.

The Conservative Party won the most seats but fell short of a majority, so they formed a coalition with the Liberal Democrats.

The two parties negotiated an agreement over policy options and office of state before forming the coalition government, which lasted until 2015.

Reason for the 1997 GE

Called by the Conservative Prime Minister John Major after his government had been in power for nearly 18 years.

The Conservative Party was facing declining popularity and internal divisions, while the opposition Labour Party under Tony Blair was seen as more modern and electable.

1997 Conservative and Labour manifestos

CONSERVATIVES

Promised to continue their policies of low inflation and economic growth, while also pledging to reduce crime and improve public services.

They also promised to hold a referendum on whether to adopt the euro as the UK's currency.

LABOUR

Promised to prioritize education, health care, and job creation.

They pledged to increase spending on public services while also maintaining fiscal responsibility.

They also promised constitutional reforms such as devolution for Scotland and Wales and reform of the House of Lords.

1997 Techniques used in election campaigns

A shift towards more modern and professional campaign techniques, with both major parties making use of focus groups, media management, and targeted messaging.

The Labour Party under Tony Blair was particularly successful in using these techniques to appeal to swing voters and win over traditionally Conservative areas. Tony Blair was media savvy.

1997 class based voting and other factors which influenced voting

In terms of class-based voting patterns in the 1997 election, there was a clear trend towards Labour among working-class voters.

Labour won 57% of the vote among manual workers compared to just 28% for the Conservatives.

However, there was also evidence of a "middle-class revolt" against the Conservatives, with many traditionally Conservative-leaning middle-class voters switching to Labour or the Liberal Democrats.

Other factors that influenced voting patterns in the 1997 election included partisanship (i.e. loyalty to a particular party), gender, age, ethnicity, and region.

For example, women were more likely to vote for Labour than men (44% vs. 36%), while younger voters were more likely to support Labour or the Liberal Democrats than older voters.

There were also significant regional variations in voting patterns; for example, Labour won over 70% of seats in Scotland while winning only around half of seats in England.

Overall turnout for the election was relatively high at around 71%.

1997 election results, voting behaviour, impact and reason for outcome

A landslide victory for the Labour Party under Tony Blair, which won 418 seats compared to just 165 for the Conservatives.

Labour a majority of 179 seats, the largest in British political history at the time.

The result was seen as a major shift in British politics, marking the end of nearly two decades of Conservative rule and the beginning of a new era of Labour dominance.

Tony Blair's modernization of the Labour Party, including its rebranding as "New Labour," was seen as a key factor in this success, as was widespread apathy with the incumbent Conservative government.

The impact of the 1997 election was significant, with Labour going on to win two more general elections under Blair's leadership and introducing major reforms in areas such as education, health care, and welfare.

However, there were also criticisms that New Labour had abandoned traditional left-wing values and become too focused on winning elections at any cost.

Reason for the 1979 GE

Called by the Labour Prime Minister James Callaghan after his government had been in power for nearly five years.

The country was facing economic difficulties, including high inflation and rising unemployment, and there were also concerns about industrial unrest.

(Winter of Discontent)

1979 Conservative and Labour manifestos

CONSERVATIVES

promised to reduce taxes and government spending, while also promoting individual responsibility and free enterprise.

They pledged to tackle inflation and unemployment through measures such as monetarism and deregulation.

LABOUR

promised to maintain full employment and improve public services such as health care and education.

They also pledged to introduce a national minimum wage and increase taxes on the wealthy.

However, their manifesto was overshadowed by a speech made by James Callaghan shortly before the election in which he appeared to suggest that there was no need for an immediate general election.

1979 class based voting and other factors which influenced voting

In terms of class-based voting patterns in the 1979 election, there was a clear trend towards the Conservatives among middle-class voters.

According to one analysis, the Conservatives won around 45% of the vote among middle-class voters compared to just 30% for Labour.

However, Labour still had significant support among working-class voters, winning around 50% of the vote among manual workers compared to just 35% for the Conservatives.

Other factors that influenced voting patterns in the 1979 election included partisanship (i.e. loyalty to a particular party), gender, age, ethnicity, and region.

For example, women were more likely to vote for Labour than men (43% vs. 38%), while younger voters were more likely to support Labour or the Liberal Party than older voters.

There were also significant regional variations in voting patterns; for example, Labour won over 70% of seats in Scotland while winning only around half of seats in England.

Overall turnout for the election was relatively high at around 76%.

1979 Techniques used in election campaigns

Both major parties making use of traditional campaign techniques such as rallies, leafleting, and door-to-door canvassing.

However, there was also a growing use of television advertising and media management, with the Conservatives in particular making use of these techniques to promote their message.

1979 election results, voting behaviour, impact and reason for outcome

A victory for the Conservative Party under Margaret Thatcher, which won 339 seats compared to just 269 for Labour.

This gave the Conservatives a majority of 43 seats.

The result was seen as a major shift in British politics, marking the beginning of nearly two decades of Conservative rule and the end of Labour's post-war dominance.

Margaret Thatcher's emphasis on free-market economics and individual responsibility was seen as a key factor in this success, as was widespread disillusionment with Labour's handling of the economy and industrial relations (winter of discontent).

The impact of the 1979 election was significant, with Margaret Thatcher going on to introduce major reforms in areas such as privatisation, deregulation, and trade union reform.

However, there were also criticisms that her policies had led to increased inequality and social division throughout her time as premier.

Reason for the 2019 GE

Called by the Conservative Prime Minister Boris Johnson after his government was unable to pass its Brexit deal through Parliament.

Johnson hoped that a new election would give him a mandate to deliver Brexit and break the parliamentary deadlock.

2019 Conservative and Labour manifestos

CONSERVATIVE

Promised to "get Brexit done" and negotiate a new trade deal with the EU.

They also pledged to increase spending on public services such as health care, education, and policing, while also cutting taxes for workers and businesses.

Promised to renegotiate a new Brexit deal with the EU and then hold a second referendum on whether to accept it or remain in the EU.

They also pledged to increase spending on public services such as health care, education, and housing, while also increasing taxes on high earners and businesses.

2019 Techniques used in election campaigns

The 2019 general election saw both major parties making use of traditional campaign techniques such as rallies, leafleting, and door-to-door canvassing.

However, there was also a growing use of social media and online advertising, with both parties investing heavily in targeted digital campaigns.

The Conservatives in particular made use of a simple and memorable slogan: "Get Brexit Done", which they repeated frequently throughout the campaign.

They also sought to portray Labour leader Jeremy Corbyn as weak on national security and economic management.

2019 class based voting and other factors which influenced voting

In terms of class-based voting patterns in the 2019 election, there was a clear trend towards the Conservatives among middle-class voters.

According to one analysis, the Conservatives won around 47% of the vote among middle-class voters compared to just 31% for Labour.

However, Labour still had significant support among working-class voters, winning around 48% of the vote among manual workers compared to just 37% for the Conservatives.

Other factors that influenced voting patterns in the 2019 election included partisanship (i.e. loyalty to a particular party), gender, age, ethnicity, and region.

For example, women were more likely to vote for Labour than men (42% vs. 36%), while younger voters were more likely to support Labour or the Liberal Democrats than older voters.

There were also significant regional variations in voting patterns; for example, Labour won over 50% of seats in London while winning only around one-third of seats in England outside London.

Overall turnout for the election was relatively high at around 67%.

2019 election results, voting behaviour, impact and reason for outcome

Conservative's won a large majority in the 2019 general election, winning 365 seats compared to just 203 for Labour.

This was a significant improvement on their performance in the previous election in 2017, and gave them a mandate to deliver Brexit and pursue their domestic policy agenda.

The result had a major impact on British politics, with Labour leader Jeremy Corbyn announcing his intention to step down following the party's poor showing.

It also paved the way for Boris Johnson to push through his Brexit deal and take the UK out of the EU on January 31, 2020.

One reason for the Conservative Party's success in the election was their clear message on Brexit: "Get Brexit Done", which resonated with many voters who were tired of the ongoing political stalemate.

Boris Johnson also sought to portray himself as a strong leader who could deliver on his promises, while attacking Jeremy Corbyn's leadership style and perceived weaknesses on issues such as national security and economic management.

What is the role of the media on politics and does it have an impact on GE's?

plays a significant role in politics, both during and between general elections.

It can influence public opinion through the way it reports on political events, and can shape the issues that are seen as important by voters.

For example, opinion polls and media coverage of them can influence how people perceive the popularity of different parties and leaders, which in turn can affect their voting behavior.

However, the impact of the media on general elections is not always clear-cut.

While some studies have suggested that media coverage can have a significant impact on election outcomes, others have found little or no effect.

Factors such as voter partisanship, personal experiences, and social networks may also play a role in shaping voting behavior.

Additionally, there are concerns about media bias and manipulation, particularly in the age of social media where false information can spread rapidly.

Some argue that this undermines the democratic process by distorting public opinion and making it harder for voters to make informed decisions.

Overall, while the media undoubtedly plays an important role in politics and general elections, its impact is complex and multifaceted.

During his time as leader of the Labour Party and later as Prime Minister, Blair was known for his skillful use of soundbites, photo opportunities, and media-friendly appearances.

For example, in the run-up to the 1997 general election, Blair famously posed for a photograph with his wife and young children outside their home in London.

The image was widely circulated in the media and helped to reinforce Blair's image as a family man and a modern, relatable politician.

Blair also made use of television appearances to communicate directly with voters.

He was known for his polished performances in interviews and debates, which hel

What is the importance and relevance of opinion polls?

Are important in politics because they provide a snapshot of public opinion on key issues and can help to shape the political agenda.

They can also be used by political parties to gauge their level of support and adjust their strategies accordingly.

However, it's important to note that opinion polls are not always accurate and can be influenced by factors such as question wording and sampling bias.

What is the importance and relevance of media bias?

Important in politics because it can shape the way that voters perceive different parties and candidates.

Biased reporting or commentary can influence public opinion and make it harder for voters to make informed decisions.

It's important for the media to strive for objectivity and balance in their reporting, but this is not always easy to achieve.

What is the importance and relevance of persuasion?

Important in general elections because it can influence how people vote.

Political parties may seek to persuade voters through advertising, speeches, or other forms of media outreach.

This can be particularly effective when combined with a clear message or policy platform that resonates with voters.

However, there are concerns about the potential for manipulation or misinformation, which could undermine the democratic process.