AP Lang - fallacies

Either-or fallacy

• When an argument suggests that there are ONLY 2 options or potential outcomes. 

• Usually the intent is to lead the audience to believe that one of the outcomes is the obvious “correct” choice.

Hasty generalizations

• Making a rushed conclusion without considering all of the factors or variables.

• Stereotypes are a particularly gross form of hasty generalization.

Appeals to ignorance

• Saying something must be true (or false) because there isn’t evidence to the contrary.

• Examples:

  “God exists. You can prove He doesn’t.”

  OR

  “God doesn’t exist. You can’t prove He does.”

Which fallacy?

1. “She was wearing cowboy boots in her last Instagram picture so she must be into country music.”

2. “No one I know was on that Apollo mission, so I can’t say with certainty that we ever put a man on the moon.”

3. “Do you want to live in a world where you can get breakfast from McDonald’s all day, or would you rather live in a dictatorship?”

1. hasty generalization

2. appeals to ignorance

3. either-or fallacy

Bandwagon appeal

• If the main premise of the argument is that many people believe it or agree with it or do it so it must be true/good/acceptable, then it’s a bandwagon fallacy. 

Authority fallacy

• While it can build ethos to have a source of authority “endorse” your argument, it becomes a fallacy if the entire premise of the argument is that “a famous person believes it so it must be true,” or if your endorser doesn’t have anything to do with the topic of your argument.

Ad hominem

• Attacking the person’s character or credentials instead of addressing the real argument they’re making.

Which fallacy?

1. Well, it doesn’t matter how I answer your question because your network is just fake news.”

2. [sign outside McDonald’s] “Over 100 billion served.”

1. ad hominem

2. bandwagon

Slippery slope

• This type of argument suggests that taking a minor action will lead to major and sometimes ridiculous consequences.

False/faulty causality

• ^not “casualty.” Cause-ality.

• This is the assumption that because one event followed another, the first caused the second.

Weak analogy

• This fallacy is when an analogy is used to prove or disprove an argument, but the analogy is too dissimilar to be effective, that is, it is unlike the argument more than it is like the argument. 

Which fallacy?

1. “Schools are a lot like businesses, and students are the customers so we must assume they are always right.”

2. “If we allow gay people to get married, then the next thing you know people will be wanting to marry their pets!”

3. “My cousin went to that restaurant and was really sick the next day, so we’d better go somewhere else if we don’t want food poisoning.”

1. weak analogy

2. slippery slope

3. false/faulty causality

Appeals to pity / overly emotional appeals

• When the appeal to pathos (pity, fear, pride, vanity) is the basis of the argument

Straw man argument

• A straw man fallacy occurs when someone distorts or exaggerates another person’s argument, and then attacks the distorted version of the argument instead of genuinely engaging.

non-sequitur fallacy

• A conclusion or statement that does not logically follow from the previous argument or statement. 

• Note: rule out other fallacies first; if it fits none of them, then it’s likely a non-sequitur.

Red Herring Fallacy

• An attempt to redirect the argument to another issue. 

• The intention is to misdirect, mislead and distract.

Which fallacy?

1. Defense attorney to jury: “How can you convict this man of murdering his mother? He’s an orphan!”

2. Person A: I think we should consider reducing the voting age to 16.                 Person B: Oh sure. Letting little kids pick the president and run for mayor will definitely make our country better.

3. People enjoy walking on beaches, which are made of sand, so people would probably enjoy floors made of sand in their homes, too!

1. appeal to pity

2. straw man argument

3. non-sequitur fallacy