PSY 324: Exam #1 List of Key Terms

Behaviorism

Only objective, observable phenomena in behavior should play a part in psychological research

Classical conditioning

A learning process in which a neutral stimulus (e.g., a ringing sound) is paired with a stimulus that elicits a natural response or reflex (e.g., food), creating an automatic, conditioned response to the neutral stimulus.

Information theory

Communication researchers led by C.E. Shannon were developing theories of communication in the midst of the World War II Era. 

• Communication → Transmissions of “information” across channels (e.g. radios, telegrams, human beings) 

• Researchers began to investigate questions about cognition in terms of information processing. 

• Abstract processes rather than observable behavior

Introspectionism

Psychological science which proposed that people could be trained to accurately analyze the components of their own thoughts. 

• Problems: This approach leaves no room for unconscious influences on thought and behavior (Helmholtz and Freud) 

• People’s ability to understand their own thought processes tends to be very limited and hard to measure.

Noam Chomsky

Wrote an influential critique of Skinner’s “Verbal Behavior,” published in 1959

• This critique played a part in the generally degrading confidence in behaviorism psychologists experienced into the 1960s.

Operant conditioning

A method of learning that uses rewards and punishment to modify behavior

• behavior that is rewarded is likely to be repeated, while behavior that is punished is prone to happen less.

Turing Machines

Uses tape divided into cells on which a binary language (0 or 1) may be written and read. 

• It was important because it showed that a physical system can process information to carry out a computation

Unconditioned stimulus

Produces a response prior to any learning 

• Example: Food

Unconditioned response

The response produced prior to any learning 

• Example: Salivation

Conditioned stimulus

After repeatedly presented alongside the UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS, produces the same response 

• Example: Fork/Bell

Conditioned response

The response produced after the learning had occurred 

• Example: Salivation 
  

Neutral stimulus

Does not produce a response prior to any learning 

• Example: Fork/Bell

Falsifiability

it must be practically possible to refute or disprove. 

• Example of a hypothesis that is NOT

• All politicians at the highest levels of government have been replaced by an advanced lizard species disguised as humans

• Example of a hypothesis that IS

• No politicians at the highest levels of government have been replaced by an advanced lizard species disguised as humans.

Independent variable

A variable that stands alone and isn't changed by the other variables you are trying to measure.

Dependent variable

A variable that changes in response to another variable

Marr's three levels of analysis

Level I: Computational Theory 

• Can we describe what is happening and why is it happening?

Level II: Representation and Algorithm 

• By what abstract process is the theory of level I implemented?

Level III: Hardware Implementation

• What is the physical realization of this process in the world?

Mathematical model

Attempting to describe a cognitive phenomenon with a mathematical expression

Visual model

Often represented with flow displays and diagrams.

Computational models 

Generally built with a computer program or simulation.

Objective variable

Defined to construct an objective function. The objective function is a summation of all variables that are designated as objective-type.

• Quantitative, easy to evaluate and measure

• ex. reaction time, accuracy rate, the amount of things

Subjective variable

Dependent upon or relative to the perspectives of people

An experience or characteristic of a research participant that is not of primary interest but nonetheless may influence study results

• Qualitative, interpretation-based, which can help you understand why or how something happened

• ex. mood, judgments, pain

Replication

Reproducing a study to see if you get the same results

Scientific method

Depth cues

Feature detection theory

Posits that all objects are composed of distinct parts (features) 

Geons

• Biederman (1987) suggested that human visual perception could be reduced to 36 basic shapes describing the spatial relations of components in the world.

Gestalt psychology

Proposed numerous principles by which observers organize objects in vision.

• They believed that in perception, the whole is more than the sum of its parts.

• Figure-ground

• Similarity

• Proximity and common region

• Good continuation

• Closure

• ...and various others

Gestalt principles

Global precedence effect

Participants seemed to apprehend the global form faster than the local objects.

• The global form interfered with local perception

• Navon termed this a _____

Marr's low-level vision

Involves extracting immediate information from light on the retina

• Edges, motion, depth

Marr's high-level vision

The observer constructs a collective perception of an image or scene based upon its various components in integration and relation.

• ex. objects, faces
  

Three primary schools of theory:

• Feature detection

• Structural

• Template matching

Steven's Power Law

Derived from Fechner’s Law
Draws a relationship between perceived stimulus intensity (I) and objective stimulus magnitude I.

Structural theory 

• These take both the features and their interrelations into account

• Those relations are primarily spatial

Template matching theory

• Proposes that objects are recognized in the environment by comparisons to templates stored in memory

• The template most closely matching the object facilitates its identification.

Weber's Law

States that the just noticeable difference (JND) ‘DI’ of stimulus intensity is proportional to the original intensity ‘I.’ The degree of that proportion is a constant ‘k.’

• Describes the minimum change in intensity that a human can notice (temperature, brightness, loudness, etc)

• This ratio is constant across various stimulus intensities.

Shepard's universal law of generalization

Tversky's contrast model

Figure-ground principle

Observers separate objects between foreground and background

Similarity principle

Observers tend to group like objects together

Proximity principle

Observers tend to group objects that are close together

Common region principle

Observers tend to group objects that are enclosed in the same space

Good continuation principle

Observers tend to perceive contours and lines as continuous instead of favoring angles or joints

Closure principle

Observers tend to look for a discernible pattern, and if necessary  the mind will fill the gaps

Good Gestalt principle

A stimulus possesses the quality of “good Gestalt” if it is orderly, complete, coherent, balanced, and clear while being as regular as possible.

• Unifies many of the principles into an amalgamation

Interposition

When one object ‘A’ interrupts the form of another object ‘B’, ‘A’ is perceived to be in front of ‘B’.

• Monocular

Linear perspective

As straight lines gradually converge, they may be perceived as parallel;

greater distance at convergence

• monocular

Relative size

Objects appearing to be different sizes are perceived to be the same size, but at different distances

• monocular

Size consistency

As an object moves further away and its retinal image becomes smaller, observers perceive it to be the same size throughout

• monocular

Texture gradients

Distant objects appear more “packed” than close objects

• monocular

Motion parallax

When in motion, an observer can distinguish distance by the apparent “speed” of other objects in view

• Nearby objects seem to move faster than distant objects

• monocular

Convergence

The angle formed between a stimulus and both eyes impacts our impression of its distance from the self.

• Binocular