Historical Antecedents In Which Social Considerations Changed The Course Of Science And Technology: In The World: Ancient, Middle, And Modern Ages

Egyptians

employed medicine methods involving trial and error

Moldy bread

promotes faster and cleaner healing of open wounds because of penicillin (antimicrobial properties)

Poppy seeds

contains morphine and codeine, both potent pain-relieving substances used to alleviate discomfort; still utilized in contemporary medicine

Papyrus

an ancient form of paper made from a plant of the same plant; invention of this form of paper revolutionized the way information was transmitted

Clay Tablet and Smooth Rocks

where ancient people used to write on before the invention of papyrus 

Egyptian  Science

believed that their Gods controlled the forces of nature—flooding of the Nile River, Sun’s movement, and Changing Seasons

the annual flooding of the Nile

not only a natural event but also a religiously significant one; Goddess Isis’ tears cause the flood; influenced their practices and calendar 

Thales

•Believed that water was the fundamental substance

Anaximander

•Proposed the idea of an "infinite" or "boundless" universe called the "apeiron," which contained all things

Anaximenes

•Believed that air was the fundamental substance

Leucippus

•Together with his student Democritus, they proposed the idea of atoms as the fundamental building blocks of the universe

Democritus

•According to him, atoms were eternal, unchanging, and differed in size, shape, and arrangement. These variations in atoms explained the diverse properties of different substances.

Thales

•Emphasis on observation and naturalistic/rational explanation

Anaximander

•Introduced the notion that living organisms could undergo transformation and adaptation. He suggested that land and sea animals might share a common ancestor.

Anaximenes

•Air could change in density and quality, giving rise to various substances.

Leucippus

•Their atomic model posited that everything was composed of tiny, indivisible particles called "atoms." These atoms were eternal, unchanging, and in constant motion, combining and recombining to form all matter.

Democritus

•Emphasized that all natural phenomena could be explained by the interactions of atoms in motion, including chemical reactions and changes in matter.

Socrates

•Not a scientist

Socrates

•Prided himself on claiming not to know things

Socrates

•He asked a lot of questions: Socratic Method

Socrates

•He is a teacher of Plato. Plato was more of a philosopher

than a scientist.

Aristotle

•Observed the world based on empirical evidence

Aristotle

•Believed in teleology, the idea that natural phenomena have inherent purposes or goals

Aristotle

•HIs writings covered topics such as biology, ethics, physics, and metaphysics.

Aristotle

•In biology, conducted extensive observations and categorizations of animals and plants, laying the foundation for the field of biology.

Archimedes

•Did great work in mathematics, and he used much of what he discovered in math to advance science.

Archimedes

•was really one of the first scientists to demonstrate how closely mathematics and science are linked.

Archimedes

•best known for his work with fluids. He was the first to show how you could predict whether or not an object would float in a liquid.

Advancement in mathematics

•The development of algebra by mathematicians like Al - Khwarizmi, whose name gave rise to the term "algorithm."

Astronomical Discoveries

•Accurate measurement of celestial objects and the creation of precise astronomical tables.

Astronomical Discoveries

•Pioneering work in understanding planetary motion and the development of the astrolabe.

Medical Breakthrough

• The compilation and translation of medical texts from Greek, Roman, and Indian sources.

Medical Breakthrough

• Contributions to pharmacology, surgery, and the understanding of contagious diseases.

House of Wisdom

• The establishment in Baghdad as a center for translation and scholarly activities.

House of Wisdom

• The translation of numerous ancient Greek, Persian, and Indian texts into Arabic, preserving and disseminating knowledge.

Notable factors that help science thrive

• Stable Sociopolitical Environment

Notable factors that help science thrive

• Influence of Earlier Islamic Scholars

Notable factors that help science thrive

• Cross-Cultural Exchange

Notable factors that help science thrive

• Patronage of Science and Scholarship

Notable factors that help science thrive

• Collaboration of Diverse Cultures

Notable factors that help science thrive

• Availability of Resources

Medieval Europe

experienced political turmoil, economic instability, and a decline in education and scholarship. Scientific inquiry in the Western world was limited, and much of the scientific knowledge of ancient Greece and Rome was lost or preserved only in fragmented forms

The Islamic World

Factors contributing to this decline included political instability, social changes, and a shift away from the patronage of scientific endeavors

Ming Dynasty China

During the later period, there was a decline in scientific progress, partly due to political and economic factors, as well as changes in societal priorities.

Post-Classical Maya Civilization

The reasons for this decline are complex and include factors such as environmental changes, political unrest, and the loss of knowledge

Alchemy

•has ancient roots, with early practices dating back to Hellenistic Egypt and ancient China. The word is derived from the Arabic "al-kīmiyā," which itself was influenced by the Greek word "chēmeía," meaning "the art of transmutation."

Alchemy

•was closely tied to metallurgy, medicine, and mysticism, making it a multidisciplinary field.

Alchemy - Transmutation

One of the primary goals was to discover the Philosopher's Stone, a mythical substance that could transform base metals (like lead) into noble metals (like gold)

Alchemy - Elixir of Life

Alchemists sought a potion that would grant immortality or greatly extend human life

Alchemy - Spiritual Enlightenment

the idea that the pursuit of material transmutation paralleled the spiritual transformation of the alchemist.

Alchemy - Symbolism

Alchemical texts were filled with symbolic language and imagery, making it difficult for outsiders to understand their writings.

Alchemy - Laboratory Practices

Alchemists conducted experiments, often involving the heating and distillation of substances. While some of their methods were empirical, others were based on mysticism

Andreas Vesalius

• his publication "De humani corporis fabrica," corrected many anatomical misconceptions of his time

Blaise Pascal

• Pascal's Triangle: A mathematical array with applications in various fields.

Blaise Pascal

• Probability Theory: Pioneered the study of randomness and probabilities.

Blaise Pascal

•Pascaline: Invented an early mechanical calculator for arithmetic.

Blaise Pascal

•"Pensées": Writings on philosophy and theology, exploring faith and the human condition.

Isaac Newton

Newton's Laws of Motion revolutionized physics. They explain how objects move and form the basis of classical mechanics.

Isaac Newton - Universal Law of Gravitation

described how every object in the universe attracts every other object with a force proportional to their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them

Isaac Newton - Calculus

a branch of mathematics that deals with rates of change.

Isaac Newton - Optics

Newton's experiments with light and prisms led to his groundbreaking theory of colors and the discovery that white light is composed of a spectrum of colors.

Antoni van Leeuwenhoek

• Leeuwenhoek revolutionized the study of life by building the first microscope.

Antoni van Leeuwenhoek

• His microscope allowed him to see a world that had been invisible up to this point, which enabled him to discover many tiny (microscopic) life forms, including bacteria.

Robert Boyle

• Known for Boyle's Law, which relates gas pressure and volume
• Distinguished mixtures from chemical compounds

Carolus Linnaeus

•pioneer a system for classifying living creatures
•classification system, including the rules for scientific names (binomial nomenclature), is still used today in modern biology and taxonomy.

Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier

• Law of Conservation of Mass
• provided a comprehensive explanation of the process of combustion, shedding light on the nature of burning and the role of oxygen in this chemical reaction.

John Dalton - Atomic Model

Elements are composed of indivisible particles called atoms, and chemical reactions involve the rearrangement of these atoms

John Dalton - Law of Multiple Proportions

Describes how elements can combine in different whole number ratios to form different compounds

Dalton’s Symbols

System of symbols to represent elements and compounds

Michael Faraday

• Foundation of modern electrical technology through electromagnetic induction

Michael Faraday

• Faraday's Law: Changing magnetic fields induce electric currents.

Michael Faraday

• Electrochemistry: Laws of electrolysis reveal links between electricity and chemistry.

Gregor Mendel

Laws of Inheritance

1840’s Vienna General Hospital

• Higher mortality from puerperal fever in First Clinic
• Cause unknown but leading maternal death factor

Semmelweis’s Investigation

• Identified staff differences: First Clinic - medical students/physicians, Second Clinic - midwives
• Hypothesized link between autopsies and puerperal fever

Handwashing

aimed to reduce contamination transfer from autopsy material

Dramatic Reduction in Mortality

mortality fell from 18% to about 1%

Louis Pasteur

• Father of Microbiology

Louis Pasteur

• Fermentation Studies: studies on fermentation were instrumental in dispelling the notion of spontaneous generation.

Louis Pasteur

• Pasteurization
• Germ Theory of Disease: work on the germ theory of disease revolutionized medicine.

Louis Pasteur

• Vaccination: created vaccines for several diseases, including rabies and anthrax.

James Joule

• Joule's Law
• Founding the First Law of Thermodynamics
• Contributions to Kinetic Theory

Max Planck

• Quantization of Energy: His groundbreaking work introduced the idea that energy exists in discrete units or "quanta”.

Max Planck

• Foundation for Quantum Theory: His quantization concept laid the foundation for Niels Bohr's atomic model and the development of quantum mechanics.

Max Planck

• Recognized with the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1918.

Niels Bohr

• Problem: Classical physics predicted electrons spiraling into the nucleus, causing atom collapse.

• Solution: Quantized energy levels ("shells") where electrons exist, with fixed orbits.

Niels Bohr

• Energy Transition: Electrons absorb/emits energy to move between levels.

Niels Bohr

• Stability: Fixed orbits prevent continuous energy emission.

Niels Bohr

• Modern Atomic Theory Foundation