Philosophy Exam 2

What did the “Death of God” mean for Nietzsche?

Transition from old theological worldviews to post theological view where human beings decide their values for themselves (without the influence of the Church)

True or false: existentialism can take both atheist and theist directions

True

What is the philosophy of humanism?

Doctrine or way of life centered on human interests or values and stressing an individual’s dignity, worth, and capacity for self-realization

During what time period and in what country did existentialism flourish?

France from 1945-1960 (post WWII)

Which three earlier philosophers influenced the existentialism?

Danish philosopher Soren Kierkegaard (1813-1855)

German philosophers GWF Hegel (1770-1831) and Martin Heidegger (1889-1976)

Existentialists though that the human predicament was characterized by ______, _______, and __________

Paradox, absurdity, and ambiguity

According to existentialist thinker Albus Camus, what are the two aspect of the absurdity of human existence?

1. We have a capacity for self-awareness and crave reasons for our existence. But there is no transcendent (supreme) justification for human life and therefore we seek what cannot be found.

2. We are constantly conflicted by the fact that our actions are pointless, but we still care about our lives and happiness.

   Connected to myth of Sisyphus (rolling rock up hill eternally)

What is Albert Camus’s response to the absurdity of life?

Defiance

We must regard our lives as our own responsibility and our own creation

Must first see the absurdity to be defiant about it

How does Jean-Paul Sartre characterize existence?

The experience of existence is anguish since we have no foundation for human existence, or no greater reason for existing

According to Jean-Paul Sartre, how do we find meaning in life if existence is anguish?

We must give meaning back to existence through our own freedom by becoming our own foundation (our own reason for existing)

What is Jean-Paul Sartre’s idea of ‘existence precedes essence’?

The essence of some objects precedes their existence (they serve a definite purpose)—> e.g. a paper knife

Since human beings are not creatures of God and are not designed for a specific purpose, our existence precedes our essence

Human existence is a never-to-be completed task

What does existing authentically mean for Jean-Paul Sartre?

Acknowledging the lack of reason for one’s existence AND taking responsibility for our existence

According to Sartre, what does ‘bad faith’ mean?

Living an inauthentic mode of existence

Letting ourselves believe we have no choice in the mode being that defines us

Letting ourselves believe our identity is fixed by the requirements of some role

According to Sarte, bad faith is a denial of either ___________ or __________.

Transcendence, facticity

What is transcendence and facticity in regards to existentialism?

Transcendence = capacity for a person to challenge what is given to them by nature, history, or place in society

Facticity= the fact that we are defined in certain ways by our bodies or society

In De Beauvoir’s perspective, how is oppression perpetuated in society?

Subjects can be locked into an object-like self-image by social and political structures

They internalize a less than fully human identity

According to De Beauvoir: Oppression is a _______ relation; it arise ______ subjects

social, between

What did De Beauvoir think about the need for recognition relating to oppression?

Our sense of our meaning, worth, and dignity of our lives depends on the recognition given to them by others

Not being recognized as having full humanity causes considerable oppression

Recognition would amount to a liberation

What is De Beauvoir’s opinion on biological differences between men and women?

The biological difference between men and women doesn’t explain or justify the normalization of the human as male

According to De Beauvoir, how does conformity to the traditional image of being a woman affect one’s happiness?

It doesn’t necessarily make a person unhappy, but it does detract from your dignity as a subject

According to Beauvoir, what is the most important concept in existentialist ethics?

Your dignity as a subject/ your capacity for ‘transcendence’

In terms of utilitarianism, what is morality and how can one act morally?

Morality is all about the consequences of actions

We act morally not by acting from a particular kind of motive, but rather by weighing all the consequences of an action and choosing the outcome that most benefits all those affected

True or false: according to Jeremy Bentham (utilitarianism), our lives are governed by pain and pleasure.

True

What is the principle of utility in regards to utilitarianism?

Principle which approves or disapproves of an action according to how much it increases or decreases the happiness of those affected (a.k.a an action is good or bad according to how much happiness/ pain it causes)

What were at least three variables in Bentham’s equation to measure the utility of an action?

1. Intensity

2. Duration

3. Probability

4. Closeness or remoteness

5. Number of people affected

According to Bentham, do all pleasures of all people have an equal footing?

Yes, status in society doesn’t matter for calculating pain and pleasure

Each person’s preferences are considered equally

For classical utilitarianism, moral deliberation is essentially a form of ________ _________ or ________ _______.

instrumental reasoning, cost-benefit analysis

What is J.S. Mill’s concept of preference utilitarianism?

There are qualitatively higher and lower pleasures

We should maximize higher pleasures (human welfare) since they provide more utility

Contrasts Bentham, who thought that all pleasures (simple or complex) provided the same level of utility

What are ethical dilemmas and what are two reasons they challenge utilitarian ethics?

Ethical dilemmas are a situation which involves two mutually incompatible, but equally reasonable (equally undesirable) courses of action

They challenge utilitarian ethics because they confound:

1. The determinate of morality, or the assumption that there is always on correct answer to moral problems

2. The reduction of ethical deliberation to a calculation of consequences (it is difficult to calculate the consequences in the scenarios)

According to Williams, how does integrity come into play with utilitarianism (criticism of utilitarianism)?

We value personal integrity, but utilitarianism cannot properly make sense of integrity

As such, utilitarianism is overly demanding and ‘self-alienating’

What is act utilitarianism (AU)?

Calculating the utility of specific actions

Rightness depends on the consequences of particular acts

What are three problems with act utilitarianism?

1. It is unworkable since it is difficult to define consequences in certain situations

2. It is demanding since it gives responsibility for even failing to act

3. It is often self-alienating (ruins our personal integrity)

What is rule utilitarianism?

The utility of rules is decisive for mortality

Focuses on laws and public policies that can be tested as a whole for the promotion of utility

Emphasizes importance of habits and patterns of behavior since moral principles help maintain such patterns

What arguments does utilitarianism make for considering non-humans the same as humans?

Utilitarianism is a ‘sentience'-centered’ ethic

All beings capable of experiencing pleasure and pain are morally considerable

We should always strive act to minimize suffering and maximize happiness and should take all beings into consideration

What is Singer’s principle of equal consideration? What are two qualifications Singer makes to this principle?

All animals (non-human or human) deserve equal consideration of their interests

Qualifications:

• All animals are not factually equal (intelligence, body)

• Not advocating for exactly equal treatment

What is speciesism?

Partiality towards the interest of members of one’s own species

How does Singer address conflict between the interests of morally considerable beings?

Interests vary in their degree of importance

We shouldn’t sacrifice significant interests of an animal for less important interests of humans

How does Singer address conflict between the equal fundamental interests (eg survival) of morally considerable beings?

Fundamental interests of self-conscious beings count as more significant than those of sentient but not self-conscious or self-aware beings

Ex. human can kill a cow if they are starving

True or false: According to Singer, it is justifiable to treat conscious beings (but not self-conscious beings) as replaceable

True

Is there a difference between having sentience and having self-awareness in Singer’s view?

Yes, there is a difference

What does Singer say about killing a being with consciousness versus self-consciousness?

It is worse to kill a being with a conception of the future and a preference to go on living

According to Kantian ethics, what is morality based on?

The capacity of human beings to shape their will according to rules and to act on principles

Mutual respect between human beings

Not based on divine commands, self-interests, or pain and pleasures

What is the idea of a good will in Kantian ethics?

A good will is good ‘without limitation’, is good in itself, and should be valued most highly

It makes a person worthy of happiness

According to Kant, how is good will formed?

By acting in accordance with duty

What are the three modes of acting with respect to duty in Kantian ethics?

Acting contrary to duty

in conformity to duty

done ‘from duty’

What is acting in conformity with duty in Kantian ethics?

Acting with duty but because of another motivation (usually self-interest)

What is acting from duty in Kantian ethics?

Actions done for the sake of duty

Motivated by principles and not inclinations

According to Kant, what is duty?

‘The necessity of an action from respect for law’

According to Kant, which actions have moral worth? What increases an action’s moral worth?

Actions have moral worth if they are done from duty as a matter of principle

An action’s moral worth is increased if one’s inclination was in the opposite direction

What are hypothetical imperatives?

Command/order to act

They prescribe a particular course of action

What are the two types of imperatives in Kantian ethics?

Hypothetical/conditional and categorical imperatives

What are hypothetical imperatives in Kantian ethics?

They tell us what we must do if we are to fulfill some desire or realize some end

Don’t apply to everyone (Ex. not everyone wants to become a lawyer)

What are categorical imperatives in Kantian ethics?

Imperatives that are applicable to everyone whatever their desires or ends

Ex. ‘You shouldn’t kill’ or ‘Don’t steal’

According to Kant, what is the Categorical imperative?

The fundamental principle of morality

Way to test the moral validity of the maxims (principles) we act by

Anything that violates the Categorical Imperative is not morally permissible

How does the Categorical Imperative in Kantian ethics relate to respect for persons?

We may use people in part as means to our ends (e.g. a bus driver), but only if we also take them to be ‘ends in themselves’ (with their own will, not mere instruments of someone else’s will)