Biological approach

Localization, Neuroplasticity, Neurotransmission, Brian scanning techniques, Hormones, Pheremones, Evolutionary theory

Functional imaging

The study of human brain function based on analysis of data

Structural imaging

Imaging approaches that are specialized for the visualization and analysis of anatomical properties of the brain

CT/CAT scan

Structural imaging. Combination of x-rays and computer technology to see axial images of brain

MRI scan

Structural imaging. Compose many pictures to see the structure of brain using magnetic fields and radio frequency current

fMRI scan

Functional imaging. Shows activity in brain over time through measuring levels of oxygen in blood

PET scan

Functional imaging. Shows brain processes through injecting radioactive isotope into blood stream

EEG scan

Functional imaging. Measures brain activity under certain psychological states, through interpreting wave patterns

Localization of function

Theory that a specific parts of the brain are responsible for a specific behaviour/cognitive process

Strict localization

Very specific area is associated with a certain behaviour

Relative localization

Some functions are localized, can sometimes be stronger and sometimes weaker

Brain stem

Oldest part of the brain. Responsible for regulating life functions

Cerebellum

Frontal part of brain. Responsible for balance, motor functions and learning

Cerebral cortex

Frontal lobe, Parential lobe, Occipital lobe, Temporal lobe

Limbic system

“The emotional brain”: Amygdala, Basal ganglia, Hippocampus, Hypothalamus, Nucleus Accumbens, Thalamus, Limbic cortex, Septal area

Amygdala

Part of the limbic system, this part of the brain is believed to play a key role in emotion and memory. In addition, there is evidence that it plays a role in aggression, sexual orientation, trust, and alcoholism.

Hippocampus

Part of the limbic system, this part of the brain appears to play a key role in the consolidation of memory from short-term to long-term, as well as play a role in spatial navigation. *There are several acetylcholine receptor sites in the --. -- cell loss plays a role in dementia, including Alzheimer's Disease.*

Nucleus Accumbens

A section of the basal forebrain, plays a key role in addiction, pleasure, reinforcement learning, aggression, impulsivity, and the placebo effect. Has a significant number of dopamine receptors.

Neuroplasticity

The brain’s ability to alter its own structure following changes within the body or in the external environment, throughout life

Neural network

A group of neurons interconnected by synapses to carry out a specific function when activated.

Synaptic/neural pruning

The process by which extra neurons and synaptic connections are eliminated in order to increase the efficiency of neuronal transmissions.

Dendritic branching

The growth of more "branches" on the dendrites of neurons in the brain, which help to send electrochemical messages down the axon

Neurogenesis

Process by which new neurons are formed in the brain

Long-term potentiation

Process involving persisten strenghtening of synapse, leading to long-lasting increase in signal transmission between neurons

Neurotransmission

The transfer of information between neurons:

Electric impulse (action potential) travels along axon of neuron and release a neurotransmitter from the terminal buttons. The neurotransmitter then crosses the synaptic gap to reach the receptor site on another neuron.

Neuron

Brain cell, made up of the soma (body) with dendrites, Axon covered by Myelin seath, and axon terminals

Neurotransmitter

A chemical messenger that carries signals between neurons in the nervous system, and therefore with a short reach and short term processes

Excitatory function

When a neurotransmitter increases the likelihood that the neuron will fire an action potential, depending on the receptor site.  *Many neurotransmitters are -- when they act on some receptor sites, and inhibitory when they act on others (ex seratonin)*

Inhibitory function

When a neurotransmitter decreases the likelihood that the neuron will fire an action potential, depending on the receptor site.  Many neurotransmitters are -- when they act on some receptor sites, and excitatory when they act on others (ex seratonin)

Agonist

A chemical or a drug that binds to receptors in the brain and causes a reaction. -- can occur naturally in the body as neurotransmitters (endogenous --) or come from exterior sources like drugs and toxins (exogenous --).

Antagonist

A chemical or drug that binds to receptors in the brain and prevents a neurotransmitter from having an effect on behaviour. *For example, scopolamine is an -- for acetylcholine.*

Reuptake

The reabsorption of a neurotransmitter by the terminal buttons of the pre-synaptic neuron after it has performed its function of transmitting a neural impulse. This prevents further activity of the neurotransmitter. *Prozac is an SSRI - that is, a selective serotonin -- inhibitor, allowing more serotonin to remain in the synaptic gap.*

Acetylcholine

The most common neurotransmitter. --receptor sites are found in the hippocampus. Plays a key role in memory consolidation from STM to LTM.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter that helps control the brain's reward and pleasure centers. Also helps regulate emotional responses. *-- deficiency results in Parkinson's Disease and people with a lower number of -- receptor sites may be more prone to addiction.*

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that works to regulate mood, appetite, and sleep. Low levels have been linked to Clinical Unipolar depression and high levels of aggression. High levels have been linked to hallucinations.

Hormone

A chemical released by endocrine glands directly into the bloodstream which influences behaviour, and therefore reaches far with long-term processes

Permissive effect

When the mere presence of the hormone allows for a behaviour, rather than the amount of the hormone. *In the case of testosterone, Sapolsky argues that it not how much testosterone an animal has that determines whether it is aggressive, it is whether they have testosterone.*

HPA axis

A complex set of interactions between two parts of the brain—the hypothalamus and the pituitary glands—and the adrenal glands that are located at the top of each kidney. This is the basis of the human stress response.

Adrenaline

Hormone secreted by the adrenal glands and stimulates the sympathetic nervous system and prepares the body for fight or flight.

Oxytocin

Secreted by the pituitary gland and plays a role in social recognition, pair bonding, and maternal attachment. For this reason, it is sometimes referred to as the "love hormone". There is some evidence that -- promotes trust and empathy in in-groups.

Cortisol

A stress hormone that is secreted by the adrenal cortex. Responsible for the breakdown of glucose in the fight or flight response. Appears to be linked to hippocampal cell loss and memory dysfunction.

Testosterone

The male sex hormone. Secreted by the testes in males and the ovaries in females.

Melatonin

Secreted by the pineal gland, forms part of the system that regulates the sleep-wake cycle by chemically causing drowsiness and lowering the body temperature

Pheromone

A chemical substance produced and released into the environment by an animal affecting the behaviour or physiology of others of its own species. 

Putative pheromone

Term used to communicate the idea that the example is "potentially" a human pheromone, but it is not definitive.

Signalling pheromone

Chemical substances that produce rapid behavioural effects, such as mating.

Evolutionary theory

Theory based on the idea that human emotions and behaviors have been shaped by natural selection and that the human brain evolved in response to specific problems that early humans faced.

Natural selection

The process whereby organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring.

Sexual selection

Natural selection arising through preference by one sex for certain characteristics in individuals of the other sex, to produce the healthiest off-spring

Intrasexual selection

Competition between one sex for acces to mates

Intersexual selection

Members of one sex chose members of other sex, based on characteristics

Parental investment theory

Sex that is physiologically required to invest more in offspring are more choosy regarding mates caused by the fear of a low-quality mate being more costly

Adaptation

The adjustment or changes in behaviour, physiology, and structure of an organism to become more suited to an environment.