Education Policies

What was the tripartite system a part of?

The 1994 Education Act (passed under the conservative PM John Major)

What were the three types of schools under the tripartite system?

Secondary Modern, Secondary Technical and Grammar schools.

What was school allocation based on under the tripartite system?

The results of the 11-plus examination.

What was the main aim of the tripartite system?

To provide children with a free, state education based on their individual abilities.

What is comprehensivisation?

The process of replacing selective schools, eg. Grammar schools with comprehensive schools.

What is a comprehensive school?

A non-selective secondary school that admits all children regardless of educational ability, is is based on catchment area.

What are the desired features of comprehensive schools?

The mixing of social classes, the mixing of academic abilities, thus equality of opportunity to all children. To reduce class and educational inequality.

What are the criticisms of comprehensive schools?

There may not be an equal mix of classes and academic abilities. Higher achievers may be held back, while lower ability students may fall behind and rebel. As they’re based on geographical location, there may be one predominant class that lives there, resulting in eg. A school full of lower class children - removes the mixing of classes. If there are grammar schools nearby, there won’t be as many higher achievers in attendance. Removes parental choices.

What is marketisation?

The policy of bringing market forces (such as choice and competition) into education.

When was marketisation introduced?

It was brought in around 1988 as one of several educational policies and reforms in the 1988 Educational Reform Acts.

What was one of the key marketisation policies introduced in 1988? What was its aim?

League tables - the publication of academic results from students at schools including A-levels, GCSEs and SATs. This allows parents to make an informed choice about the school they send their child to, and promote competitiveness between schools. Schools compete for parents and strive to keep improving their standards, and therefore their positions on league tables to attract more pupils (and funding).

What are the criticisms of the tripartite system?

Only tests a limited number of subjects and ignores other skill sets. Bowles and Gintis argue achievement is based on socio-economic background. Many teachers, parents, and students label children who failed the 11-plus as failiures. In cases, this may lead to a ‘self-fulfulling prophecy’ in which children who failed the 11-plus leave schools with no qualifications.

What are criticisms of marketisation?

Ball, Bowe and Gerwirtz (Marxists) - They investigated the impact of marketisation policies on schools.

They concluded that some schools responded by focusing their attention on the most able children with the most potential to boost league table positions, arguably disadvantaging lower ability pupils - Schools more likely to engage in cream skimming and silk shifting. Many schools reintroduced banding and streaming in order to best identify the students who would help league table positions. Money previously devoted to SEN work was now being used for marketing strategies. More resources now bring greater advantages - parents who can afford transport have more choices.

What is vocationalism in education?

Work or career related education, such as a Diploma in health and social care.

What is new vocationalism?

The term refers to a series of reforms introduced in the uK from the late 1970s onwards. These reforms aimed to make education more relevant to the world of work by promoting vocational education and training.

Why were the new vocationalism policies introduced?

It emerged as a response to rising youth unemployment and concerns that traditional academic education was not adequately preparing students for the job market.

What theory influenced the vocationalism reforms in the late 1970s?

The Human Capital theory: it argues education should develop skills that enhance economic productivity. It was believed that by making education more practical and career focused, young people would be better prepared for the demands of the economy.

What new vocationalism policy was introduced in 1980?

Youth opportunities programme (YOP)

What was the aim of the youth opportunity programme (1980)?

To introduce training programmes for 16-18 year olds to give them work experience and basic skills.

What new vocationalism policy was introduced in 1983?

The Youth Training scheme

What was the aim of the new vocationalism policy Youth training scheme (1983)?

It offered 1 year training that combined work experience with education, targeting school leavers who weren’t employed or in further education.

What new vocationalism policy was introduced in 1986?

The National Council for Vocational Qualifications.

What was the aim of the national council for Vocational Qualifications (1986)?

It was established to standardised vocational qualifications and ensure consistency across training programmes.

What new vocationalism policy was introduced in 1992?

General National Vocational Qualifications (GNVQs)

What was the aim of the new vocationalism policy the General National Vocational Qualifications (1992)?

To provide broader Vocational Qualifications for 16-19 year olds, designed to offer an alternative to A levels.

What new vocationalism policy was introduced in the 2000s?

Diplomas and Apprenticeships.

What was the aim of the new vocationalism policy Diplomas and Apprenticeships (2000s)?

(Under the new labour government.) They wanted to expand vocational routes with the introduction of new diplomas and a renewed focus on apprenticeships.

How do functionalists value vocationalism?

As essential for the month running of society. It helps with role allocation and matching individuals to jobs that suit their skills and abilities.They argue vocational training promotes social integration by instilling shared norms and values. Durkheim believed education prepared individuals for roles in society.

How did marxists value vocationalism?

They argue it serves the interests of capitalism by reproducing social inequalities - it is a direct way to ensure working class students in low-paid, low-status jobs, maintaining class structures.

After 1997: What are Education Action Zones?

Were introduced by the new labour government in 1998 as part of a broader strategy to tackle educational underachievement in deprived areas.

After 1997: What are the main aims of Education Action Zones? What is the overall evaluation?

To raise standards by fostering partnerships between schools, local businesses, and the community.

While there were some improvements, the overall impact was limited and inconsistent.

After 1997: What is the Marxist evaluation of Sure Start?

They criticised them for addressing the symptoms of social inequality, rather than it structual causes.

After 1997: What is the Feminist evaluation of Sure Start?

They praised it for supporting working mothers and challenging traditional gender roles.

After 1997: What is the Functionalist evaluation of Sure Start?

They said it promotes social cohesion and equal opportunity.

After 1997: What is the Marxist evaluation of Education Action Zones?

They criticise it for failing to address the root of inequality, eg. Poverty and class structure.

After 1997: What is the Feminist evaluation of Education Action Zones?

They suggest EAZs often overlook gender specific barriers to achievement - particularly for girls in patriarchal communities.

After 1997: What Is Sure Start? And its main aim

A flagship policy introduced by the new labour government in 1999 aimed at giving children in disadvantaged areas the best start in life. They provided integrated services such as early education, childcare, healthcare and parenting support through local Sure Start centres. The initiative was grounded in the belief early intervention could break the poverty cycle and improve long-term educational and social outcomes.

After 1997: What is the overall evaluation of Sure Start?

It had some positive effects on things such as child behaviour, although effectiveness tended to vary on location, as some centres struggled with funding and staff.

After 1997: What is the Academies Programme?

A programme launched by the new labour in the early 2000s as a strategy to improve underperforming schools.

What are Academies?

Academies are state-funded schools that operate independently of local authority, giving them greater authority over curriculum, staffing, and finance.

How do functionalists view the academies programme? (Early 2000s)

They argue academies raise standards by increasing competition and accountability.

How do Marxists view the academies programme? (Early 2000s)

They have criticised the programme for promoting marketisation and reinforcing class inequality - many prioritise performance over inclusion.

How do feminists view the academies programme? (Early 2000s)

They raise concerns about the lack of oversight and the potential for gender bias in curriculum choices and leadership structures.

What is the overall evaluation of the academies programme?

The effectiveness is mixed, and depends on local context and leadership.

After 1997: When and why was pupil premium introduced?

In 2011 by the coalition government to reduce the attainment gap between disadvantaged pupils and their peers. It's overall goal is to improve education outcomes and promote social mobility.

How do functionalists value pupil premium? (2011)

They support the policy as a way to promote meritocracy and equal opportunity.

What does pupil premium involve?

The government giving schools additional money for each eligible student for free school meals, who are in care, or have parents in the armed forces.

How do Marxists view pupil premium? (2011)

They argue while the policy acknowldges inequality, it doesn't challenge the structual causes of inequality.

How do Feminists view pupil premium? (2011)

While it can benefit disadvantaged girls, it may not fully address the intersection of gender and class.

After 1997: When was and what is aim higher?

A government initiative launched in 20004 under New Labour, designed to increase participation in higher education from disadvantaged backgrounds.

WHat was the main aim of Aim Higher? (2004)

To raise aspirations and awareness, helping students see university as a realistic and achievable goal.

What do functionalists say about aim higher (2004)?

They viewed it as good - helping to promote meritocracy.

What do feminists say about aim higher (2004)?

They generally supported it, especially as it can be seen as empowering young women to pursue academic professions careers.

What happened to aim high? (2004)

It was discontinued in 2011, with critics lamenting the loss of a valuable tool for promoting mobility.