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Memory
the process by which we encode, store, and retrieve information
Sensory memory
Initial, momentary storage of information that lasts only an instant
Short-term memory
Holds information for 15 to 25 seconds, stores according to meaning rather than sensory stimulation
Long-term memory
Stores information on a relatively permanent basis, although it may be difficult to retrieve
Iconic memory
reflects information from the visual system; lasts less than a second
Echoic memory
stores auditory information coming from the ears; lasts 2 to 3 seconds
Chunk
a group of separate pieces of information stored as a single unit in short-term memory
Repetitive rehearsal
the repetition of information that has entered short-term memory
Elaborative rehearsal
occurs when information is considered and organized in some fashion; rehearsal that moves information into long-term memory
Working memory
a memory system that holds information temporarily while actively manipulating and rehearsing that information
Primacy effect
best remembered are items that come early
Recency effect
best remembered are items presented late
Declarative memory
refers to factual information; it is sometimes called explicit memory
Semantic memory
for general knowledge
Episodic memory
for events that occur in a particular time, place, or context
Semantic networks
mental representations of clusters of interconnected information
Engram
the physical memory trace in the brain that corresponds to a memory
Hippocampus
a part of the brainās limbic system, it plays a central role in the consolidation of memories
Amygdala
a part of the brainās limbic system, it is involved with memories involving emotion
Long-term potentiation
when certain neural pathways become easily excited while a new response is being learned
Consolidation
when memories become fixed and stable in long-term memory
Retrieval cues
stimuli that allow us to more easily recall information that is in long-term memory
Recall
memory task in which specific information must be retrieved
Recognition
memory task in which individuals are presented with a stimulus and asked whether they have been exposed to it in the past or to identify it from a list of alternatives
Levels-of-processing theory
a theory of memory that emphasizes the degree to which new material is mentally analyzed
Explicit memory
intentional or conscious recollection of information
Implicit memory
memories of which people are not consciously aware
Priming
occurs when exposure to a word or concept (called a prime) later makes it easier to recall related information
Flashbulb memories
memories of a specific, important, or surprising emotionally significant event that are recalled easily and with vivid imagery
Source amnesia
occurs when an individual has a memory for some material but cannot recall where he or she encountered it
Constructive processes
processes in which memories are influenced by the meaning we give to events
Schemas
organized bodies of information stored in memory that bias the way new information is interpreted, stored, and recalled
Repressed memories
apparent recollections of events that are initially so shocking that the mind pushed them into the unconscious
False memories
when people embrace so-called āfake news.ā
Autobiographical memory
our recollection of our own life experiences
Decay
the loss of information through its nonuse
Interference
information in memory disrupts the recall of other information
Cue-dependent forgetting
occurs when there are insufficient retrieval cues to rekindle information in memory
Proactive interference
information learned earlier disrupts the recall of newer material and progresses in time
Retroactive interference
material that was learned later disrupts the retrieval of information that was learned earlier and retrogresses in time
Retrograde amnesia
memory is lost for occurrences prior to a certain event, but not for new events
Anterograde amnesia
memory is lost for events that follow an injury
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