Lab Practical

Informative characters are shared by…

two taxa

uninformative characters are shared by…

more than two taxa

invariant characters are shared by…

all taxa

Homologous traits vs homoplasious traits

homology:

• common ancestry

Homoplasy:

• convergent evolution

• morphology and behavior is homoplasy

Linnaean ranking system

What are microbe morphology, habitat, and pathogenicity all examples of?

homoplasy

Archaea/Bacteria/Eukaryotic/LUCA traits

Archaea:

• ether linked membranes, methanogenesis

• lack cell wall

Bacteria

• peptidoglycan cell wall

Eukaryotes

• linear chromosomes, larger ribosomes, mitosis, nucleus

LUCA

• circular DNA, DNA bases, amino acid codons, 70S ribosome, lipoprotein membrane, ester linkages

LGT happens through

conjugation

• bacteria sex

transformation

• absorb DNA outside

transduction

• virus involvement

How to tell where a gene came from in a new strain of bacteria? (Different species of bacteria)

LGT = you found different, random mutation = you did not find different

Rhizobium

bacteria that provide plants with nitrogen

Anabaena

in water ferns and fixed nitrogen

termite hindgut

• ciliated microbial eukaryotes found in normal light

• archaea seen under UV light

  • these produce the cellulases needed to break down cellulose

Aerobic, obligate, aerotolerant anaerobes, facultative

aerobic

• need oxygen

obligate

• can’t tolerate oxygen

aerotolerant

• don’t need it but can tolerate

facultative

• can use oxygen but doesn’t need to

syntrophy

the secondary metabolites of microbes in one layer are used by microbes in the layer below

Many microbe species are found using metagenomics. What does this mean?

eliminates need to culture microbes, allowing research to be done despite “Great plate count anomaly”

phase contrast microscopy and how to find it on microscope

• allows you to view transparent parts of a living specimen under a microscope without using stains as stains would normally kill specimens

  • move filter wheel to pH1 and replace right eyepiece with phase contrast telescope

Naegleria experiment

• can be amoeboid or non-amoeboid

• amoeboid = food

  • non-amoeboid = no food so moving to new environment

cellular slime molds

• slugs are aggregations of cells that travel to a new location

• slugs eventually form a fruiting body that sexually reproduces

  • in response to low nutrients

plasmodial slime molds

• single cell with many nuclei

• move by amoeboid motion

• when conditions harsh, either form fruiting body or goes dormant

endosymbiotic origins of organelles (nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplast)

nucleus

• unknown

mitochondria

• alpha proteobacterium

chloroplast

• cyanobacteria

evidence of endosymbiosis of organelles

• organelles reproduce via binary fission

• ribosomes in organelles resemble bacterial ribosomes

• cells cannot reproduce organelles if they are removed/destroyed

what is the gametangia in plants?

they house the archegonia and antheridia

archegonia vs antheridia

archegonia = eggs, antheridia = sperm

• archegonia lost in angiosperms

• antheridia lost in seed plants

How are megaphylls produced and which have them?

overtopping and webbing, all euphyllophytes

Rings on tree stump

• older rings pushed outside

• wider when more water

  • because more xylem produced when more water

Body of chara

• chara is a glaucophyte

  • supported by water

  • water distributed by osmosis

body of liverwort

supported by turgor pressure, water distributed by osmosis

Liverwort

• in bryophytes (first one)

• gametophyte dominant

• swimming sperm

Mosses

• in bryophytes (second one)

• gametophyte dominant

• swimming sperm

hornworts

• bryophytes (last one)

• gametophyte dominant

• swimming sperm

selaginella

• lycophyte

• heterospory

• microphylls

• dominant sporophyte

• has strobili (cones)

  • but not separate male and female

  • micro and megasporangium are housed in same cone

    • = selginella more likely to self-fertilize

• swimming sperm

lycopodium

• lycophyte

• microphylls

• dominant sporophyte

• swimming sperm

horsetails

• monilophytes

• chloroplast DNA inversion

• megaphylls

• swimming sperm

whisk fern

• monilophytes

• chloroplast DNA inversion

• megaphylls

• swimming sperm

ferns

• monilophytes

• chloroplast DNA inversion

• sori on bottom

  • cluster of sporangia

• megaphylls

• swimming sperm

cycad

• gymnosperms

• integument (seed coat)

• seeds/pollens

• heterospory

• BVC

• ovule

ginkgo

• gymnosperms

• integument (seed coat)

• seeds/pollens

• heterospory

• BVC

• ovule

gnetophytes

• gymnosperms

• integument (seed coat)

• seeds/pollens

• heterospory

• BVC

• ovule

• double fertilization (no endosperm)

• vessel elements

conifers

• gymnosperms

• integument (seed coat)

• seeds/pollens

• heterospory

• BVC

• ovule

basal angiosperms

• angiosperm

• integument (seed coat)

• seeds/pollen

• heterospory

• BVC

• ovule

• endosperm

• double fertilization

• carpel, fruit, vessel elements

monocot

• angiosperm

• integument (seed coat)

• seeds/pollen

• heterospory

• LOSS of BVC

• ovule

• endosperm

• double fertilization

• carpel, fruit, vessel elements

eudicot

• angiosperm

• integument (seed coat)

• seeds/pollen

• heterospory

• BVC

• ovule

• endosperm

• double fertilization

• carpel, fruit, vessel elements

Gymnosperms Cones

• has strobili (cones)

• separate male and female cones

  • male = pollen

  • female = seed (typical looking cone)

central cell of a angiosperm ovule has a ploidy of what?

n + n

• when it becomes FERTILIZED then it becomes 3n (endosperm)

Perfect flowers

both male and female parts

imperfect flowers

only have male parts or only has female partspo

humming bird (pollination)

• flower is red

• no landing pad

• lots of nectar

• flower has long tube

moth (pollination)

• flower is white

• sweet fragrance

• flower has long tube

bee (pollination)

• flower has landing pad

fly (pollination)

• flower is purple / brown

• mottled appearance

• corpse-like odor

parts of a seed

radicle

• embryonic root

hypocotyl

• embryonic shoot

cotyledon

• embryonic leaves derived from nutritive tissue

simple fruits

• one flower

• one carpel becomes fruit

  • there can be multiple seeds, as a carpel may contain multiple ovules

aggregate fruits

• one flower with multiple carpels that fuse together to produce one fruit

multiple fruits

• multiple flowers with a single carpel each fuse to form a multiple fruit

primary vs secondary metabolites

• primary is necessary

• secondary is not needed but increases survivability

epiphytes

• modifications to roots, stems, and leaves that allow them to grow on top of other plants

trichomes

extensions of plant

Fungi identification

Lichens

symbiosis between fungus and algae or cyanobacteria

• most fungi need it

• lichens have independently evolved multiple times

Septate vs Aseptate (Fungi)

Septate

• cytoplasm of each hyphal cell is separate

Aseptate

• cytoplasm is connected

Ascomycetes Identification

Look for ascus where it’s a straight line (8 red dots inside)

Basidiomycota Identification

Look for basidium where there are 4 red spores

Porifera

• Sponges

  • blastula doesn’t develop into a gastrula

    • meaning no gut

  • asymmetric

  • spicules

    • structures / defense

    • calcium or glass

  • not cephalized

  • aquiferous system

    • branched water canals

  • filter feeders

Ctenophores

• radial symmetry

• diploblastic development

• complete gut

• nervous system (nerve net)

  • no connection of nerves into a brain

• simple musculature

Cnidarians

• sea anemones, corals, sea jellies, cube jellies, hydrozoans

  • radial symmetry

  • incomplete gut

  • diploblastic

    • ectoderm / endoderm

  • two body forms: polyp and medusa

    • polyp is sessile with oral end up

    • medusa is motile with oral end down

    • alternate between two forms (not all)

  • cnidocyte

    • harpoon thingy

    • most common type is the nematocyst

  • nerve net

    • not cephalized

  • carnivorous (predatory)

    • combination of extracellular and intracellular digestion

  • planula larva

Mollusca

• chitons, bivalves, snails, slugs, nudibranchs, clams, mussels, oysters, squids, octopuses, nautiluses

• bilateria

  • protostomes

    • lophotrochozoa

• complete gut

• reduce coelom

• open circulatory system

• has mantle, visceral mass, and foot

• mouth with radula

  • chainsaw tongue

• well developed nervous system

• trochophore larva

• spiral, mosaic cleavage

• bivalves

  • hinge separates shell

  • suspension-feeders

  • sessile

  • not cephalized

• everyone else is predatory and cephalized

Annelida

• polychaetes, earthworms, leeches

• bilateria

  • protostomes

    • lophotrochozoa

• segmentation

• paired setae

  • chitinous

• only polychaetes have paired appendages (parapodia)

• closed circulatory system, cutaneous respiration

• complete gut

• spiral, mosaic cleavage

• cephalized

Arthropoda

• arachnids, horseshoe crab, centipedes, millipedes, crabs, shrimp, lobsters, barnacles, insects

• bilateria

  • protostomes

    • ecdysozoa

• ecdysis

• exoskeleton

• segmentation

• paired jointed appendages

• tagmosis

  • regional specialization of body

  • tagmata

• paired compound eyes

• reduced coelom and open circulatory system

• complete gut

• cephalized

Echinodermata

• bilateria

  • deuterostomes

• penta-radial symmetry

• water vascular system

• radial, regulative cleavage

• triploblasty

• complete gut

• not cephalized

Chordata

• tunicates

• bilateria

  • deuterostomes

• postanal tail

• notochord

• dorsal, hollow nerve cord

• segmentation

• cephalized

• adult tunicates aren’t cephalized

What animal is this?

tunicate in chordata

What animal is this?

sea hare in mollusca

What animal is this?

sea cucumber in echinodermata