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Epidemiology
the study of where and when diseases occur and how they are transmitted in populations
Chain of Infection
organism = reservoir = transmission = susceptible host
John Snow
tracked the source of a cholera outbreak in London in 1854 to water from a specific well
ended the outbreak by breaking the chain of transmission
Ignaz Semmelweis
showed that handwashing decreased the incidence of puerperal sepsis
Florence Nightingale
showed that improved sanitation decreased the incidence of epidemic typhus
Role of Epidemiology
determine etiology of a disease
identify other important factors and patterns concerning the spread of disease
assemble data and graphs to outline incidence of disease
predict the probability that an infection will spread through a population
explores various methods for controlling a disease
reproductive number
Reproductive Number
average number of people who will contract a disease from one infected individual
Descriptive Epidemiology
collection and analysis of data
ex: snows search for the source of cholera outbreak
Analytical Epidemiology
analyzed a particular disease to determine its probable cause or risk factors
ex: nightingales work
Experimental Epidemiology
involves a hypothesis and controlled experiments
ex: semmelweis
Clinical Trial
test and control group
Case Reporting
enables researchers to establish the chain of transmission
requires health care workers to report specified diseases to local, state, and national health officials
notifiable infection diseases list
provide early warning of possible outbreaks
Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
collects and analyzed epidemiological information in the united states
publishes morbidity and mortality weekly report (MMWR)
morbidity: incidence of a specific notable disease
mortality: deaths from a notable disease
articles include reports of disease outbreaks, case histories, and summaries of the status of an particular disease
Notable Infectious Diseases
diseases in which physicians are required to report occurence
Morbidity Rate
number of people affected in relation to the total population in a given time period
Mortality Rate
number of deaths from a disease in relation to the total population in a given time period
Sporadic Disease
disease that occurs only occasionally
Endemic Disease
disease constantly present in a population
Epidemic Disease
disease acquired by many people in a given area in a short time
Pandemic
worldwide epidemic
Incidence
number of people who develop a disease during a particular time period
number of new cases of a disease in that population
Prevalence
number of people who have a disease at a specified time regardless of when it first appeared
total number of active cases of a disease in a population
takes into account both old and new cases
Common Source Epidemics
a way to classify a major epidemic
usually arises from contamination of water or food
ex: cholera
Host to Host Epidemic
a way to classify a major epidemic
the disease shows a slow, progressive rise or gradual decline
ex: influenza and chicken pox
HIV and Reemerging Disease
global spread has increased number of immunocompromised persons, allowing for reemergence of some infectious diseases once thought to be under control
immunocompromised patients are highly susceptible to infections including mycobacterium tuberculosis which has reemerged as drug development
Disease Tracking
for epidemics: find the index case or patient zero (first person with disease) and then identify all people who had contact with the individual
Obstacles of Global Surveillance
not every country has modern clinical laboratories, efficient case reporting, effective political systems to detect and limit outbreaks of infectious disease
resources of developing countries are too limited to reach public health goals
CDC and WHO mobilize teams of scientists and medical personnel, sending them to remote parts of the world when global health is threatened
Quarantine and Isolation
applied to healthy people exposed to a disease during the incubation period
limits the movements of such people and not necessarily to precautions during treatment
Notifiable Diseases
infectious diseases that are potentially harmful to the publics health and must be reported by physicians
Lyme Disease Agent
borrelia burgdorferi
Lyme Disease Mode of Transmission
bite of infected ixodes tick
Lyme Disease Cause of Emergence
increase in deer and human populations in wooded areas
Tuberculosis Agent
mycobacterium tuberculosis
Tuberculosis Mode of Transmission
sputum droplets (exhaled through a cough or sneeze) from a person with active disease
Tuberculosis Cause of Emergence
antimicrobial drug resistance as multidrug resistant and extensively drug resistant bacterium
Antibiotic Associated Enterocolitis Agent
clostridioides difficile
Antibiotic Associated Enterocolitis Mode of Transmission
person to person contact and through fomites in healthcare settings
Antibiotic Associated Enterocolitis Cause of Emergence
gut dysbiosis due to long term use of antibiotics
Cholera Agent
vibrio cholerae, causes severe diarrhea and rapid dehydration
Cholera Mode of Transmission
water contaminated with feces of infected people, food exposed to contaminated water
Cholera Cause of Emergence
poor sanitation and hygiene, carried to non endemic areas via affected travelers and commerce
Hemorrhagic Fever Agent
dengue
Hemorrhagic Fever Mode of Transmission
bite of an infected mosquito, primarily aedes aegypti
Hemorrhagic Fever Cause of Emergence
poor mosquito control, increased urbanization in tropics and increased travel and shipping
Pneumonia Agent
influenza H5N1 - avian influenza, causes fever, headache, and cough
Pneumonia Mode of Transmission
direct contact with infected animals or humans, not easily spread via respiratory aerosols
Pneumonia Cause of Emergence
danger of animal-human virus reassortment, antigenic shift
Zika Symptoms
asymptomatic or fever, rash, muscle and joint pain
Zika Mode of Transmission
bite of an infected mosquito (primarily aedes aegypti), mother to fetus, sexual contact, or blood transfusion
Zika Cause of Emergence
poor mosquito control increased urbanization in tropics