psych 1xx3 final exam

what is development?

refers to the changes and continuities that occur within the individual between conception and death

what are the two different processes that lead to developmental change?

maturation and learning

what is maturation?

the biologically-timed unfolding of changes within the individual according to that individuals genetic plan

example: when a child naturally grows and develops, like learning to control their emotions as they get older

what is learning?

relatively permanent changes in our thoughts, behaviours, and feelings as a result of our experiences

• the acquisition of neuronal representations of new information

• practice can make controlled processes automatic

example: when you first learn how to drive, you’re very focused because its new, but as you get more comfortable, it feels like second nature

what is the interactionist perspective?

the view that holds the idea that maturation and learning are intersected during development

example: a person’s intelligence is shaped by their genetic potential (maturation) and the quality of education and experiences they receive (learning)

what are the 4 methods of measuring abilities in infants?

1. habituation procedure

2. event-related potentials (ERP)

3. high-amplitude sucking method

4. preference method

what is the habituation procedure and what are the two types?

happens when a stimulus (i.e. a sound or picture) is repeatedly shown to an infant while tracking their responses i.e. heart rate, breathing, or eye/head movements). Initially, the infant reacts strongly to the new stimulus, but over time, with repeated exposure, their responses return to normal. this indicates that they have habituated to the stimulus

• “can the infant tell the stimulus has changed”

• 2 types: habituation and dishabituation

what is habituation?

a decease in the responsiveness to a stimulus following its repeated exposure

example: when a person stops noticing the ticking of a clock after spending some time in the room.

what is dishabituation?

an increase in the responsiveness to a stimulus that is somehow different from the habituated stimulus

• shown when the stimulus has changed

example: a baby, who has grown bored of a repeatedly shown toy, suddenly regains interest when the toy makes a new sound or changes colour

what is event-related potentials?

brain waves that happen in response to specific events or stimuli, like hearing a sound or seeing a picture

• measured by placing a special electrode cap on an informant’s scalp to detect brain activity changes in specific regions, such as the occupational lobe for visual stimuli or the temporal lobe for auditory stimuli

• “how does the brain react to this stimulus”

what is the high-amplitude sucking method?

an infant’s baseline sucking rate is measured and they control a stimulus (e.g. musical notes) by adjusting their sucking rate. faster sucking keeps the stimulus playing if they like it, while baseline or slower sucking stops it.

• “does the infant like this stimulus?”

what is the prefrence method?

involves placing an infant in a chamber to observe two stimuli, measuring which gets more attention; however, it requires confirming that the infant can distinguish between the stimuli to ensure the test measures preferences, not just discrimination

• “Which one of these two stimuli does the infant like more?”

what is competence performance distinction?

an individual may fail a task, not because they lack these cognitive abilities, but because they are on unable to demonstrate those abilities

example: trying to make a track star run on a broken leg it’s not that they’re slow. Their foot is just broken.

what is the longitudinal design?

a developmental research design in which the same individuals are studied repeatedly over some subset of their lifespan

• they allow for accurate and direct comparisons overtime

• include some drawbacks

what are some drawbacks of the longitude design?

• cost and time: expensive and time consuming

• selective attrition: some participants may quit become unfit to continue or even die, leaving us with biased samples of the population

• practice effects: changes in participants responses due to repeated testing

what is the cross-sectional design?

a developmental research design in which individuals from different age groups are studied at the same point in time

• allows for faster comparisons between age groups

• has some drawbacks

what are some drawbacks for the cross-sectional design?

• cannot distinguish age effects from generational effects: we don’t know if something is happening due to it being a cause of age or due to it being the cause of the generation you were born into

• cannot directly assess individual development change: because we are using multiple people, we don’t really know how an individual truly acts throughout their lifespan because everyone is different

what is an alternative for developmental studies?

combine the longitudinal design with the cross-sectional design!

• this combines the strongest and weakest features of both design types in one

explain the process for chromosomal growth

• when a sperm joins, an ovum a zygote is formed. This single cell contains 46 chromosomes-23 from each parent

• chromosomes are thread like structures made of DNA which contains genes genes are the chemical instructions for development

• humans have about 3000 to 4000 genes the zygote quickly divides growing from one cell to billions all containing the same 46 chromosomes inherited at conception

what are monozygotic (identical) twins?

genetically identical because they come from the same sperm and ovum which formed one zygote and then split into two separate zygotes

what are dizygotic (fraternal) twins

they share 50% of genes because they come from two different sperm and ova and start off as two different zygotes from the moment of conception

how do males determine the sex of their child?

• The 23rd pair of chromosomes decides the sex

• females have two X chromosomes while Males have one X and Y chromosome mothers always pass on an X chromosome, but fathers pass on either an X (resulting a female) or a Y (resulting in male) chromosome

what is a genotype?

an individuals inherited genes

• The 46 identical chromosomes in each of your cell translates into roughly 3000 to 4000 genes that make up your genotype

example: a person's genotype for eye color might include the dominant brown eye allele (B) and the recessive blue eye allele (b), where the dominant allele results in brown eyes.

what is a phenotype?

The expression of an individuals genotype in terms of observable characteristics

what are the 4 main patterns of genetic expression?

1. simple dominant-recessive inheritance

2. polygenic expression

3. codominance

4. sex-linked inheritance

what is simple dominant-recessive inheritance?

A pattern of inheritance in which the expression of a trait is determined by a single pair of alleles

• homozygous

• heterozygous

what is homozygous?

when both alleles are the same

example: CC or ss

what is heterozygous?

when alleles are different

example: Cs

explain the concept of dominant and recessive alleles

• dominant alleles are expressed in the phenotype

• Recessive alleles are carried, but only expressed if alleles are recessive

example: Curly hair (C) Is dominant, Straight hair (s) is recessive

• parents (bob and sue) are heterozygous (Cs) for hair type

• genotype combinations for children:

  • CC (homozygous dominant): curly hair (1/4 chance)

  • Cs (homozygous recessive) straight hair (1/4) chance

  • ss (homozygous recessive) straight hair (1/4 chance)

• phenotypic ratios:

  • ¾ chance of curly hair

  • ¼ chance of straight hair

what is polygenic expression?

when the expression of a trait is determined by the interaction of multiple genes

• No single gene can explain most complex behaviours

example: Height and weight are determined by the interaction of many genes

what is codominance?

when both dominant alleles are fully expressed, resulting in a phenotype that shows both traits

example: If a black cat (B) And a white cat (W) mate, their offspring could have black AND white patches (BW) showing both colours equally rather than blending into grey

what is sex-linked inheritance?

when traits are passed down through the X or Y chromosomes, affecting how certain conditions or characteristics are inherited

• The X chromosome is larger and has more genes than the Y chromosome

• X linked disorders (e.g. colour blindness) Are more common than males as they only have one X chromosome

• Females have two X chromosomes So they are less likely to show these disorders, though they can be carriers

• Y linked disorders are rare and only passed from father to son since males carry the Y chromosome

what is the canalization principle?

within a species as a whole, the genotype restricts the phenotype to a small number of possible developmental outcomes

• states that development is guided along a fixed path by genetics, making certain traits resistant to environmental changes

• All members of a given species will share many phenotypic traits, even though they will have different interactions with the environment

example: all infants, regardless of environmental language, or hearing ability, follow the same developmental sequence of babbling

what is the range-of-reaction principle?

genotypes, like experiences and interactions with the environment, can produce a range of possible phenotypes

example: A child who could be very smart because of their genes might only become as smart as their environment allows, like having good teachers and books.

explain how canalizations and range-of-reactions both shape your phenotype by working together in a two-step process

step 1: canalization

• genes restrict the range of possible phenotypes for a species (e.g. lower and upper limits of traits

step 2: range of reaction

• environment determines where within that range an individual falls

• Environmental factors influence, gene expression, shaping the phenotype

example: height

• Genetics at the potential range of height

• factors like nutrition and exercise determine the final outcome within that range

what are the 3 different ways your genes influence your environmental experiences?

1. passive genotype/ environmental correlation

2. evocative genotype/environmental correlations

3. active genotype/environmental correlations

explain the passive genotype/ environmental correlations

The environment that your parents choose to raise their children in was influenced by the parents own genes, so it will likely complement the child’s genes

example: a couple with high intelligence may design an environment, rich with intellectual stimulation for their kids

explain the evocative genotype/environmental correlations

The traits that we have inherited affect how others react and behaved towards us

example: a child’s natural temper can influence how others behave towards them with different tempers, evoking negative responses and sunny disposition evoking positive responses

explain active genotype/environment correlations

are genotypes influence the kinds of environment that we seek

example: a person with a sensation seeking temper may actively choose environments which satisfy these thrill seeking urges

explain how gene-environment, interactions, change their influence across a lifespan

• passive correlations are most influential early in the lifespan

• active correlations are most influential late in the lifespan

• evocative correlations are influential throughout life

what is the critical period?

a window of opportunity within an individual development in which particular environmental stimulation is necessary in order to see permanent changes in specific abilities

• it is like a little window of opportunity where a person is especially prime to receive certain input from the environment

• critical period in visual development is from 4 to 6 weeks

what are the implications of critical periods?

• likely to affect parental decision decisions

• could affect decision decisions to adapt

• affects public policy on child intervention

what is experience-expectant brain growth?

our brains have evolved to expect a certain amount of environmental input, and with this input ordinary levels of visual, auditory, and social input, ensure that the brain develops properly

what is experience-dependent brain growth?

The unique way in which your brain develops according to your own personal experiences

• this type of brain growth is specific to each individual and reflects the more subtle changes in brain structure across individuals based on their various experiences

what are sensitive periods?

developmental periods during which a specific type of learning takes place most easily

• unlike the critical. There’s still time for learning to occur after the sensitive period has passed

• has flexibility in the timing and type of stimulation required for normal development

what are adaptations?

biological traits that help an individual to survive and reproduce in its habitat

• Usually described as being “for” something: they perform specific functions that make an organism better suited to its environment

example: The human islands changes shape to focus on objects at varying distances

what is natural selection?

The process by which organisms with traits better suited to their environment, are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing those advantageous traits to future generations

example: in a population with blue and red fish, blue fish blend into the water, avoiding predators, while redfish are easily spotted and eaten. as a result, blue fish survive, and produce more passing on their colour-a heritable trait- to their offspring

what are the three essential components of natural selection?

1. significant individual differences

   • within any population, there is a variation among individuals for any given characteristic

2. Differential reproduction

   • The individual differences affect individual chances of surviving and reproducing, causing some to have more offspring than others

3. Heritability

   • The traits that give rise to differential reproduction, have a genetic basis meaning they are heritable

what is stabilizing selection?

Selection against any sort of departure from the species-typical adaptive design

• Tends to keep traits stable over generations

example: Human breath, weight. average sized babies have the highest survival rate while very small or very large babies, face internal health risks, such as undeveloped organs, which can affect survival and health

what is darwinian fitness?

average reproductive success of a genotype relative to alternate genotypes

• Biologist use the term to describe how good a particular genotype is at leaving copies of its gene in the next generation to other genotypes

example: A change in gene frequencies over generations, in part due to the introduction of new gene variants via mutations

what is sexual selection?

The component of natural selection that acts on traits that influence an organism’s ability to obtain a mate resulting in differential reproductive success

• two types:

  • intersexual selection

  • intra sexual selection

what is inter sexual selection?

occurs when individuals of one sex typically females choose mates based on traits that signal genetic quality

example: The large, colourful tail feathers of male peacocks

what is intra sexual selection?

when individuals of the same sex typically males compete directly with each other for access to mates

example: male deer fighting with their antlers to establish dominance

what are the components of species-characteristic behaviour:

1. physical form/movement

   • how animals move (e.g., hopping)

2. habitat preference

   • Where they go, eat, and capture food

3. social behaviour

   • Preferences for being alone or in flocks, Mating systems (Monogamous or polygamous), And how they raise offspring

example: Sandpipers have a unique forging behaviour where they run after receiving waves to peek at insects on the wet sand and quickly retreat before the next wave, which helps birdwatchers know which species this is

What are the four types of social behavior?

1. cooperation

2. Altruism

3. Selfish

4. spite

in terms of the four types of social behavior, what is the effect on the actors well-being and the effect on the recipients well-being?

1. cooperation (+)(+)

2. Altruism (-)(+)

3. Selfish (+)(-)

4. Spite (-)(-)

what is altruism?

behaviour in which the actor occurs a cost to provide a benefit to the recipient

• It is not altruistic if the actor gains directly from the behaviour

• altruists decreased their own fitness when helping others

what is the quasi-experiment?

similar to traditional experimental design, but lacks the random assignment of individuals to groups

example: researchers compared the academic performance of students before and after implementing a new teaching method in their school

what is a normative/descriptive question?

asks how behaviours are processes change as a function of age

example: what behavioural or physiological changes should we expect to observe over the cause of an individuals normative development?

what is the cohort effect?

A disadvantage of the cross-sectional design difference between age groups may be due to generational differences and not reflect actual differences in development

what eusocial hymenoptera?

Eusocial Hymenoptera (ants, bees, wasps) live in colonies with division of labor, cooperative care of young, and overlapping generations.

• Purpose: This system improves survival by allowing specialized roles (queen, workers, soldiers), efficient care of young, and better protection of resources.

example: It's like a beehive— the queen lays eggs, worker bees gather food, and soldier bees protect the hive, so everyone has a job to keep things running smoothly!

what is direct fitness?

An individuals genetic contribution through its personal reproduction

what is indirect fitness?

refers to the genetic success an individual achieves by helping relatives reproduce, thereby passing on shared genes

• an individual genetic contribution through the reproduction of close genetic relatives

example: A meerkat warning its group of approaching predators increases the survival chances of its kin, enhancing its indirect fitness.

what is hamiltons rule?

predicts when altruistic behaviour will be favoured

• formula rB>c

explain the formula for hamiltons rule

rB>c

• r is The degree of relatedness between individuals

• B is The reproductive benefit of the recipient

• C is The reproductive cost to the actor

what is relatedness?

The probability that actor and recipient shared gene in question

• depends how genes were inherited

what is the androgen insensitivity syndrome?

when an individual is biologically male, but is resistant to Male hormones (androgens). this can affect the development of male sex characteristics

• intersex

what is direct reciprocity?

a form of cooperation where individuals help others who have helped them in the past

what is indirect reciprocity?

occurs when individuals help others who have helped others, establishing a good reputation

what are alarm calls?

altruistic warning of approaching predators

• female squirrels give calls more often when they live near kin

• males leave kin early and almost never give alarm calls

what is phenotype matching?

an evaluation of relatedness between individuals based on an assessment of phenotypic similarity

• self referential: between yourself and another individual

what is the neural plate?

• A flat tissue in an embryo that starts the development of the nervous system.

• It folds into a tube called the neural tube, which becomes the brain and spinal cord.

example: like a flat sheet of paper that folds into a straw to form the nervous system.

what is the neural tube?

the neural plate folds and closes to become a hallow structure known as the neural tube

what is synaptic pruning?

the process of eliminating weaker or unused synaptic connections in the brain, strengthening more frequently used ones to enhance efficiency

• changes in neural structure that results in a reduction in the number of synapses

example: when a toddler's brain eliminates excess connections involved in distinguishing sounds from all languages, focusing instead on sounds specific to their native language

what is occulted dominance columns?

columns of neurons in the individual cortex that respond preferentially to information from one eye to the other

what is amblyopia?

sometimes referred to as “lazy eye”, amblyopia is the loss of visual activity in an otherwise healthy eye

what is neurogenesis?

The development and growth of neurons

what is fluid intelligence?

involves abstract, thinking, and quick reasoning, and tends to decline with age

what is crystallized intelligence?

an individuals accumulated knowledge may increase with age

what does it mean to be high resistance?

individual groups or systems that resist or oppose changes, innovations, or adaptations often slowing down progress or implementation

• you are more likely to have a better future

what does it mean to be low resistance?

describes individuals groups or systems that are open to and easily accept changes, innovations or adaptations, resulting in smoother, progress and growth

• more likely to have a hard future

what is a phylogeny?

A pattern of evolutionary development and divergence from common ancestors

example: the phylogeny of humans shows that we share a common ancestor with chimpanzees, our closest living relatives, within the primate evolutionary tree.

What does adaptive radiation refer to?

It’s when one species quickly evolves into many different species, each suited to a different environment or niche.

• example: after the dinosaurs went extinct, mammals evolved into different species like bats, whales, and primates to fill new roles in the environment.

what is romantic jealously?

Feelings of anger and desire to guard a mate (a reproductive need) from emotionally investing in a new relationship.

what is fluctuating asymmetry?

It’s when a body part that should be the same on both sides (like eyes, ears, or hands) is a little uneven

example: one ear might be slightly higher than the other. People usually think more symmetry (evenness) looks better

what does positively related mean?

R>0 , more related then we would expect by chance

what does negatively related mean?

R<0 , less related then what we expect by chance

what two main zones do neurons have?

1. receptive zone

2. transmission zone

explain the receptive zone

receives signals

• includes dendrites and the cell body

explain the transmission zone

passes signals to other cells

• includes the axon and the terminal ends

what are dendrites?

projections that receive signals from other neurons

explain the cell body does

• maintains neuron structure

• carries genetic info

• provides energy

what is the signal pathway in a neuron?

Signals received by the dendrites are sent to the cell body, then passed through the axon

what is the axon?

a long fiber that carries the signal

• length varies: can be very short or as long as 1 meter (spine to foot)

what are the terminal ends?

• also known as boutons

  • located at the axons end

  • looks like little feet

  • connect with the receptive zone nearby neurons to pass the signal

what do glial cells do?

• structural support

• nourishment

• insulation for neurons

• works alongside neurons to maintain brain function and contributes to the larger whole

explain the job of the cell membrane

the cell membrane controls which ions pass in and out of a neuron

• uses portion channels like potassium (K+) and sodium (Na+) channels

• the selective movement of ions is key for neural communication

  • the resting potential of the neuron is -70, meaning there are more positively charged ions outside and more negative charges inside

explain what happens to the cell membrane at rest

• inside the neuron:

  • potassium (K+) and protein molecules (A-) are inside

• outside the neuron:

  • chloride (Cl-) and sodium (Na+) are outside

what are the two types of potassium channels?

1. leak potassium channel

2. voltage-gated potassium channel

explain what the leak potassium channel does

always open, allowing potassium to leave the neuron, helping maintain resting potential