Unit 1B: Reformations and Religious Wars

by Veda Venkat

John Wycliffe

John Wycliffe

A 14th-century English theologian who criticized the Catholic Church, translated the Bible into English, and was an early precursor to the Protestant Reformation

Jan Hus

A Czech reformer influenced by Wycliffe, who challenged church corruption and was burned at the stake in 1415, leading to the Hussite Wars

nepotism

Favoritism based on family ties, particularly in the church, where popes appointed relatives to high positions, undermining meritocracy.

Christian humanism

A Renaissance movement that combined classical learning and humanist principles with Christian faith, emphasizing a return to the original texts of the Bible.

Erasmus

A Dutch Christian humanist and scholar whose works, including In Praise of Folly, criticized church abuses and called for reform, influencing the Protestant Reformation.

Thomas More

An English humanist and author of Utopia, who was executed for refusing to acknowledge Henry VIII as head of the Church of England.

pluralism

The practice of holding multiple church offices simultaneously, often leading to neglect of duties and corruption within the Catholic Church.

Frederick the Wise-Fred.III

The Elector of Saxony who protected Martin Luther after he was declared an outlaw by the Holy Roman Emperor.

Martin Luther

95 Theses in 1517 sparked the Protestant Reformation, challenging the authority of the Catholic Church and advocating for salvation through faith alone.

Charles V

Holy Roman Emperor during the Reformation who opposed Luther’s reforms and sought to maintain Catholic unity across his vast empire.

Peasants’ War

A widespread revolt in 1524-1525 where German peasants, inspired by Reformation ideas, rebelled against feudal oppression. Luther did not support their cause.

transubstantiation

A Catholic belief that during the Eucharist, the bread and wine literally transform into the body and blood of Christ.

Peace of Augsburg

A 1555 treaty allowing rulers of the Holy Roman Empire to choose either Lutheranism or Catholicism as the official religion of their state.

Schmalkaldic League

An alliance of Lutheran princes within the Holy Roman Empire formed to defend their religious and political interests against Charles V.

Lutheranism in Scandinavia

The spread of Martin Luther’s teachings into Scandinavian countries, leading to the establishment of Lutheran state churches in Denmark, Norway, and Sweden.

Ulrich Zwingli

A Swiss reformer who disagreed with Luther on the Eucharist and emphasized a more symbolic interpretation of the elements. His ideas influenced Reformed Christianity.

Anabaptists

Radical Protestant reformers who believed in adult baptism and separation of church and state, often persecuted by both Catholics and other Protestants.

Henry VIII

The English king who broke from the Catholic Church, forming the Church of England after the pope refused to annul his marriage.

Act of Supremacy

A 1534 law declaring Henry VIII as the supreme head of the Church of England, marking the official break from the Catholic Church.

Mary I

Daughter of Henry VIII, she attempted to restore Catholicism in England, earning the nickname “Bloody Mary” for persecuting Protestants.

John Calvin

A French Protestant theologian whose doctrine of predestination (God determines who will be saved) became central to Calvinism, influencing Protestantism in Geneva and beyond.

predestination

The Calvinist belief that God has predetermined who will be saved and who will be damned, emphasizing God’s sovereignty in salvation.

Women and family in the Reformation

The Reformation had mixed effects on women, sometimes elevating their role in family and religious life, but overall limiting their public roles.

Puritans

English Protestants who sought to purify the Church of England of Catholic practices, eventually leading to their emigration to America for religious freedom.

St. Teresa of Avila

A Spanish mystic and reformer of the Carmelite order, known for her spiritual writings and role in the Counter-Reformation.

Jesuits

A Catholic religious order founded by Ignatius of Loyola during the Counter-Reformation, focusing on education, missionary work, and defending Catholic doctrine.

missionaries

Individuals, often Jesuits, who traveled to spread Christianity, particularly in the Americas and Asia during the Age of Exploration.

Index of Prohibited Books

A list of works banned by the Catholic Church for being heretical or anti-clerical, including writings by reformers like Luther and Calvin.

Council of Trent

A major Catholic council (1545-1563) that reformed the church and solidified Catholic doctrine in response to the Protestant Reformation.

benefice

A church office or position that provided income to the holder, often a source of corruption due to its sale or exploitation.

excommunication

The act of officially excluding someone from participation in the sacraments and services of the Christian Church, often used to punish dissenters.

Book of Common Prayer

A liturgical text used in the Church of England, introduced during the English Reformation and standardized Anglican worship.

Huguenot

French Protestants influenced by Calvinist teachings, often persecuted in Catholic France.

Bourbon

A powerful French royal dynasty that came to power during the Wars of Religion, eventually producing King Henry IV.

Catherine de’ Medici

Queen of France and a key figure during the French Wars of Religion, often blamed for orchestrating the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre.

Henry of Navarre (IV)

A Huguenot leader who converted to Catholicism to become King of France, famously stating, “Paris is worth a Mass.” His Edict of Nantes granted religious tolerance to Huguenots.

Politiques

Moderate political leaders in France who prioritized political stability over religious orthodoxy during the French Wars of Religion.

St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre

A 1572 massacre of Huguenots in Paris, ordered by Catherine de’ Medici, sparking further religious wars in France.

Edict of Nantes

A 1598 decree by Henry IV granting limited religious freedom to Huguenots in France, ending the Wars of Religion.

Philip II

King of Spain and a staunch Catholic who led efforts to suppress Protestantism across Europe, particularly in the Netherlands and England.

silver

Refers to the influx of silver from the Americas into Spain, which caused inflation and economic difficulties throughout Europe in the 16th century.

William I of Nassau, prince of Orange

Leader of the Dutch Revolt against Spanish rule, which led to the independence of the Dutch Republic.

United Provinces

The independent Dutch Republic, officially formed in 1581, which became a center of trade, finance, and Protestantism in Europe.

Elizabeth I

Queen of England (1558-1603) who established the Protestant Church of England and successfully defended the country against the Spanish Armada.

Mary Queen of Scots

A Catholic rival to Elizabeth I, who was executed after plotting to assassinate Elizabeth and claim the English throne.

Act of Uniformity

A 1559 law enforcing uniformity in religious worship in England, establishing the Book of Common Prayer as the standard for Anglican services.

Frances Drake

An English sea captain and privateer who played a key role in defeating the Spanish Armada and circumnavigating the globe.

Spanish Armada

A large fleet sent by Philip II of Spain in 1588 to invade England, but defeated by Elizabeth I’s navy.

Pacification of Ghent

A 1576 agreement uniting Dutch provinces against Spanish rule during the Eighty Years' War, regardless of religious differences.

Witchcraft

A widespread belief during the early modern period, leading to witch trials and executions, particularly in Europe and North America.

Thirty Years’ War

A European conflict (1618-1648) initially sparked by religious tensions between Catholics and Protestants, but evolving into a broader political struggle.

The Defenestration of Prague

The 1618 event in which Protestant nobles threw Catholic officials out of a window, triggering the Thirty Years’ War.

Ferdinand II

Holy Roman Emperor during the Thirty Years’ War who sought to reassert Catholic dominance in Europe, opposing Protestant forces.

Gustavus Adolphus

King of Sweden and a key Protestant leader during the Thirty Years' War, known for military innovations and victories against Catholic forces.

Peace of Westphalia

The 1648 treaties that ended the Thirty Years’ War, establishing the modern state system and granting religious tolerance in the Holy Roman Empire.

Military revolution

A theory that advances in military tactics, organization, and technology during the 16th and 17th centuries transformed European warfare and state-building.