Unit 0 - Intro, Science Practices

critical thinking

thinking that does not automatically accept arguments and conclusions . Rather , it examines assumptions appraises the source , discerns hidden biases evaluates evidence , and assesses conclusions

three key elements of the scientific attitude

curiosity, skepticism, humility

curiosity

genuine desire to learn, ask questions, seek explanations

skepticism

encourages critical evaluation of evidence and claims (helps to avoid bias and ensure reliable findings)

humility

acknowledges the limit of one’s knowledge and includes being open to the possibility of being wrong

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it (also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon).

overconfidence

we humans tend to think we know more than we do

perceiving order in random events

we’re born with an eagerness to make sense of our world

peer reviewers

scientific experts who evaluate a research article’s theory originality and accuracy

theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

falsifiable

the possibility that an idea (hypothesis or theory) can be disproven by observation or experiment

the scientific method

this self-correcting process asks questions and observes nature’s answers

operational definition

carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study

replication

repeating the essence of a research study usually with different participants in different situations to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced

case study

a non-experimental research design type in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

naturalistic observation

non-experimental research design type of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

survey

a non-experimental design element for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

social desirability bias

bias from people’s responding in wyas they presume a researcher expects or wishes

self report bias

bias when people report their behavior inaccurately

sampling bias

flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

random sample

sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

population

all those in a group being studied, from which random samples may be drawn.

correlation

measures of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other

correlation coefficient

statistical index of the relationship between two variables (from -1.00 to +1.00)

variable

anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure

scatterplot

graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables.

illusory correlation

perceiving a relationship where none exists or perceiving a stronger -than- actual relationship

regression toward the mean

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average

experiment

research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable)

experimental group

in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment - that is, to one version of the independent variable

control group

in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups

single-blind procedure

experimental procedure in which the research participants are they have received the treatment ignorant (blind) about whether or a placebo.

double-blind procedure

both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone

independent variable

the factor that is manipulated

confounding variable

factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study’s results

experimental bias

bias caused when researchers may unintentionally influence results to confirm their own beliefs

dependent variable

the outcome that is measured the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated

validity

the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to

quantitative research

research method that relies on quantifiable, numerical data

qualitative research

research method that relies on in depth, narrative data that are not translated into numbers

informed consent

giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

debriefing

post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

BPS

British Psychological Society

APA

American Psychological Association

descriptive statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups; include measures of central tendency and measures of variation

histogram

a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution

mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

percentile rank

the percentage of scores that are lower than a given score

skewed distribution

a symmetry representation of scores that lack around their average value

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

normal curve

symmetrical bell - shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data (also called a normal distribution)

inferential statistics

numerical data that allow one to generalize - to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population

meta-analysis

statistical procedure for analyzing the results of multiple studies to reach an overall conclusion

statistical significance

statistical significance of how likely it is that a result (such as a difference between samples) occurred by chance

effect size

the strength of the relationship between two variables. The larger the effect size, the more one variable can be explained by the other

Generalizability

Extent to which results or findings from a particular experiment can be said to be true of the larger population

third variable problem

the concept that a correlation between two variables may stem from both being influenced by some third variable

true myth

While not “true” in a scientific sense, the myth can be considered a true myth because it reveals spiritual and cultural truths about humanity’s role in the world and the cyclical nature of existence.