PSY 1101 Final Review uOttawa

Aristotle

Observation and questioning to understand the body-psyche relationship. Theorized about learning, memory, motivation, emotion, etc.

Wilhelm Wundt

Creator of the first psychological lab

Structuralism

used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind; like studying a disassembled car

Introspection

"looking inward" reporting elements of individual experience

Edward Bradford Titchener

Structuralist; used introspection

Functionalism

explored how mental and behavioural processes function - how they enable organisms to adapt, survive, flourish

William James

Functionalist; wrote Principles of Psychology in 1980

Mary Whiton Calkins

First female president of American Psychological Association

Margaret Floy Washburn

First woman to receive a psychology Ph.D. Wrote The Animal Mind

Behaviourism

"science of mental life" the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behaviour without reference to mental processes

B.F. Skinner

behaviourist; rejected introspection and studied how consequences shape behaviour

Freudian Psychology

emphasized the ways our unconscious thought processes and our emotional responses to childhood experiences affect our behaviour

Sigmund Freud

The controversial ideas of this famed personality theorist and therapist have influenced humanity's self-understanding

humanistic psychology

historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual's potential for personal growth

Cognitive Psychology

importance of how our mind processes and retains information. Explored ways we perceive, process, and remember information

cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)

Natural Selection

the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

Charles Darwin

argued natural selection shaped behaviours as well as bodies. Wrote On the Origin of Species

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behaviour and the mind, using principles of natural selection

Behaviour genetics

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behaviour

Culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

positive psychology

the scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive

levels of analysis

biological influences, psychological influences, social-cultural influences

basic research

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

applied research

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

counseling psychology

a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being

psychiatry

a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy

Community psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

Overconfidence

being more confident than correct

Perception of Patterns

people perceive patterns to make sense of the real world. Even in random, unrelated data, people find order.

intuition

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

Qualities needed for "scientific attitude"

Curiosity, Skepticism, Humility

Characteristics of Critical Thinking

Examine assumptions, appraise the source, discern hidden values, evaluate evidence, assess conclusions

Scientific Method

a self-correcting process for evaluating ideas with observation and analysis

Theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

operational definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study

Replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

case study

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

naturalistic observation

a descriptive technique of observing and recording behaviour in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

survey

a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

Population

all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Unrepresentative Sample

a survey group that does not represent the population being studied

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)

Scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables

regression toward the mean

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back (regress) toward their average.

Causation

A cause and effect relationship in which one variable controls the changes in another variable.

experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process

experimental group

In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

control group

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

independent variable

The factor that is manipulated; variable whose effect is being studied

confounding variable

in an experiment, a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect

dependent variable

in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated

Protecting research animals

legislation, lab regulation, local ethics committees

why we study animals

common biology, fascinating, understand how different species learn, think, behave

informed consent

giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

Debriefing

the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

normal curve (normal distribution)

a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes.

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

Mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

Median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

Phrenology

the study that bumps on the skull could reveal a person's mental abilities and character traits

Biological Perspective

concerned with the links between biology and behavior

myelin sheath

a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next

glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

refractory period

a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

all-or-none response

a neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing.

Depolarization

The process during the action potential when sodium is rushing into the cell causing the interior to become more positive.

Synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

synaptic gap

space between the axon terminal of one neuron and the receptors of the next neuron

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons

Reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

Endorphins

"morphine within"--natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

Agonist

a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, stimulates a response (opiates)

Antagonist

a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, inhibits or blocks a response (botulin)

Acetylcholine (ACh)

enables muscle action, learning, and memory

Dopamine

influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion

Serotonin

Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal

Norepinephrine

helps control alertness and arousal

Gamma-amniobutyric acid (GABA)

chief inhibitory neurotransmitter

Glutamate

A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory

neural networks

interconnected neural cells. With experience, networks can learn, as feedback strengthens or inhibits connections that produce certain results. Computer simulations of neural networks show analogous learning.

Nerves

bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs

peripheral nervous system

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

autonomic nervous system

controls glands and muscles of internal organs

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

somatic nervous system

controls the body's skeletal muscles