HBS final review

Flashcards based on HBS Essential Questions Practice Quiz lecture notes.

Which body systems work together for movement?

The muscular, skeletal, and nervous systems. Nerves signal muscles, muscles pull bones, and joints allow motion.

Which body systems work together for communication?

The nervous and endocrine systems. Nerves send fast signals, and hormones send slower, longer-lasting messages.

What is the advantage of using regional and directional terms when discussing location in the body?

It provides a universal language that ensures clear and precise communication between medical professionals.

How does the structure of specific human tissue relate to its function in the human body?

Structure supports function. Muscle tissue has long fibers for contraction; epithelial tissue is tightly packed for protection; nervous tissue has long extensions to transmit signals.

How does the overall structure of bone provide strength and flexibility but keep bone from being too bulky and heavy?

Bones have a dense outer layer (compact bone) for strength and a spongy inner layer (trabecular bone) that reduces weight and adds flexibility.

How does the structure of a joint provide information about its function?

The shape and connective tissues in a joint (ligaments, cartilage) determine its movement. Ball-and-socket joints allow rotation, while hinge joints permit bending.

How do bones, muscles, and joints work together to enable movement and locomotion for the human body?

Muscles contract and pull on bones, which pivot at joints. Ligaments stabilize the joints, while tendons connect muscles to bones to create movement.

How do specific cells and hormones assist with bone remodeling in the human body?

Osteoblasts build bone; osteoclasts break it down. Hormones like calcitonin and parathyroid hormone (PTH) regulate calcium levels and remodeling balance.

What tests or technology can be used to diagnose and treat injury to a bone, ligament, or joint?

Bone: X-rays; Ligaments: MRI or ultrasound; Joints: Arthroscopy (camera inside the joint), MRI, physical tests.

Why would medical professionals measure the range of motion at a joint?

To assess joint function, diagnose injuries, track recovery, and evaluate physical limitations or therapy progress.

How are we able to overcome muscle fatigue?

Through rest, hydration, oxygen delivery, and removing waste products like lactic acid. Training increases endurance and reduces fatigue over time.

What do skeletal muscle structure and attachment to bones indicate about function?

Skeletal muscles are striated for strength and attach to bones via tendons to produce voluntary movement.

What are the consequences of miscommunication within or between body systems?

Miscommunication can lead to diseases—like hormone imbalances causing diabetes or nervous system damage leading to paralysis.

How does understanding the structure and function of the human brain help with the diagnosis of disease?

It helps localize damage based on symptoms—for example, speech issues suggest damage to Broca’s area, while memory issues suggest problems in the hippocampus.

How can neurological diseases affect overall function in other human body systems?

They can impair movement, breathing, heart rate, digestion, or hormone release, depending on which nerves or brain areas are affected.

What would happen in the body if the action of neurotransmitters was impaired?

Nerve signals would be blocked or misfired, leading to problems like depression, muscle weakness, seizures, or Parkinson’s disease.

Why does reaction time typically differ in reflex and voluntary actions?

Reflexes are faster because they bypass the brain and go through the spinal cord only. Voluntary actions involve conscious brain processing, which takes more time.

How do hormones and feedback mechanisms maintain homeostasis in the human body?

Negative feedback loops adjust hormone levels—like insulin lowering blood sugar or ADH regulating water balance.

How can improper levels of a hormone lead to disease or dysfunction in the human body?

Too little or too much hormone disrupts balance. For example, too little insulin causes diabetes; too much growth hormone causes gigantism.

What are the roles of the endocrine and reproductive systems in human development?

Hormones like estrogen and testosterone trigger puberty and support reproductive function.

How does the body’s reaction to the external environment impact the internal environment?

Stress, temperature, or injury triggers internal responses like hormone release, immune responses, or temperature regulation to maintain balance.

How are model organisms useful in research?

They allow scientists to study biological processes similar to humans in a controlled, ethical way (e.g., mice, fruit flies, zebrafish).

How do organisms interact with their environment and what are the effects of these interactions?

Organisms adapt to or change their environments; these interactions affect survival, reproduction, and ecosystems.

How does genetic variation among organisms affect survival?

Greater variation increases chances that some individuals will survive changes or threats (e.g., disease resistance).

How do the eye and the brain work together to process what we see?

Light hits the retina, photoreceptors convert it to electrical signals, and the optic nerve sends them to the brain for interpretation.

How does an error in the structure or function of the eye relate to disease or dysfunction?

A misshapen cornea causes blurry vision (astigmatism); blocked ducts or damaged retina can cause blindness or pressure buildup (glaucoma).

How do the cardiovascular and respiratory systems work together to maintain homeostasis in the human body?

Lungs provide oxygen to blood; the heart pumps oxygen-rich blood to tissues and removes carbon dioxide for exhalation.

How does the structure of arteries, veins, and capillaries relate to their function in the body?

Arteries: Thick, muscular walls for oxygenated blood flow away from heart;

Veins: Valves and thinner walls to return deoxygenated blood;

Capillaries: Thin walls facilitate easy gas, substances and nutrient exchange.

What medical interventions are available to improve circulation in impaired blood vessels?

Stents, bypass surgery, angioplasty, medication (like blood thinners), or lifestyle changes.

How do EKG tracings show the heart’s electrical activity and assist health professionals in making medical decisions?

They reveal heart rate and rhythm, detect arrhythmias, and show if a heart attack has occurred or is happening.

How do the systems of the human body work together to facilitate gas exchange?

The respiratory system brings in oxygen and removes CO₂; the circulatory system transports gases between lungs and tissues.

How can analysis of lung capacity be used to diagnose or treat a patient?

Tests like spirometry detect conditions like asthma, COPD, or fibrosis based on how much air the lungs can move.

How can an individual improve or damage their lung function?

Improve: Exercise, avoid smoking, manage asthma; Damage: Smoking, pollution, lung infections, or chronic disease.

How do the skin and accessory organs of the skin help maintain homeostasis in the human body?

They regulate temperature, protect against pathogens, prevent water loss, and produce vitamin D.

How do the lymphatic and immune systems work together to help maintain homeostasis in the human body?

Lymph nodes filter pathogens, and immune cells (white blood cells) destroy them to prevent infection.

How do different types of pathogens cause infectious diseases?

Bacteria: Toxins or tissue invasion;

Viruses: Hijack cells to reproduce;

Fungi, parasites,

prions: Each has unique mechanisms that disrupt normal function.

How do the cellular components of the human immune system fight disease?

White blood cells (like T-cells and B-cells) recognize, attack, and remember pathogens for future protection.

How does the body react when exposed to an antigen for the second time?

It responds faster and stronger due to memory cells and pre-made antibodies.

How does the nephron function to maintain fluid and electrolyte balance in the human body?

It filters blood, reabsorbs needed substances, and removes waste and excess ions in urine.

How can the composition of urine provide clues about problems in human body systems?

High glucose may indicate diabetes;

Proteins can indicate kidney damage,

infections may reveal the presence of white blood cells or bacteria.

How can molecular biology techniques be used to diagnose genetic diseases?

Techniques like PCR, gel electrophoresis, and DNA sequencing identify genetic mutations.

How do doctors determine compatible donors and recipients for organ donations?

By matching blood type, HLA markers, and checking for antibodies to prevent rejection.

How does the body obtain and use energy from food?

Carbs, fats, and proteins are broken down in the digestive system; glucose enters cells for cellular respiration (ATP production).

How do enzymes assist the function of the digestive system?

They break down food molecules: amylase (carbs), protease (proteins), lipase (fats).

How is the food you eat broken down to provide energy for the body?

Mechanical and chemical digestion breaks it down into nutrients that are absorbed into the bloodstream and used in cells.

How are digestive diseases diagnosed and treated?

With endoscopies, imaging, stool tests, or blood work. Treatments include medication, diet changes, or surgery.

How does the microbiome of the gut play important roles in the body?

It helps digest food, produces vitamins, supports immunity, and protects against harmful bacteria.

How do medical interventions help medical professionals and patients prevent, diagnose, and treat disease?

Vaccines, screenings, genetic tests, medications, surgeries, and lifestyle counseling all support disease management and prevention.