applied psychology booklet 1

A1- The Approaches

Cognitive approach

Social approach

Behaviourist and learning approaches

Biological approach

Cognitive assumptions- A1

Behaviour is a product of information processing

Computer analogy - input, processing and output

Social Assumptions- A1

Behaviour occurs in a social context

Other people, culture and society influence people's behaviour

Learning Assumptions- A1

Behaviour is a learned response from environmental

stimuli

Behaviour can be learned from observation and imitation

Biological Assumptions-A1

Behaviour is influenced by central nervous system (CNS), genes and neurochemistry

Behaviour is a product of evolution

What is Memory?

Memory is a stored representation of events that can be encoded and then retrieved

Characteristics of memory

Capacity -Amount of material that can be kept in a memory store

Duration -Length of time material can be kept in a memory store

Encoding -Process of converting information from one form (code) to another so it can be stored in the memory stores and passed between them

three memory stores:

sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory

Sensory memory

Stores for each of the 5 senses

Short-term memory

Limited capacity memory store

long-term memory

Permanent memory store

Free recall

A piece of information we retrieve from a memory store without any 'assistance'

Cued recall

When we can only recall something with assistance from a cue e.g. struggle to recall a key term but find it easier if someone says "it starts with M"

Recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

Cues

Cues can be important because they contribute to superior retrieval in cued recall and recognition

Meaningful cues

Some cues are linked to material in a meaningful / organised way, specifically to you, which strengthens the remembrance of it.

Cues without meaning

something learned at the same time but isn't linked to the material, e.g. emotion or music

Reconstructive memory

memory that has been simplified, enriched, or distorted, depending on an individual's experiences and attitudes - Bartlett

Schemas

A schema is a mental structure or 'package' containing our stored knowledge

Shortening

When parts of a memory don't fit in with your schema, these are left out

Rationalisation

When parts of a memory are recalled but in a distorted way that fits your schema

Confabulation

When parts of a memory are invented to 'fill in the gaps'

What are cognitive biases?

systematic errors in thinking

Fundamental Attribution error (FAE)

Attribution is the process of trying to explain other peoples' behaviour

We naturally tend to over-emphasise personal characteristics and downplay the role of the situation

Confirmation bias

Tend to favour information that supports a belief we already hold

Hostile attribution bias

We may wrongly interpret other peoples' behaviour as threatening (hostile) when in fact it is neutral

What is cognitive priming?

When you see or hear one stimulus (the 'prime'), this affects your response to a later stimulus

Repetition priming

A1- The Approaches

Cognitive approach

Social approach

Behaviourist and learning approaches

Biological approach

Cognitive assumptions- A1

Behaviour is a product of information processing

Computer analogy - input, processing and output

Social Assumptions- A1

Behaviour occurs in a social context

Other people, culture and society influence people's behaviour

Learning Assumptions- A1

Behaviour is a learned response from environmental

stimuli

Behaviour can be learned from observation and imitation

biological assumptions

Behaviour is influenced by central nervous system (CNS), genes and neurochemistry

Behaviour is a product of evolution

What is Memory?

Memory is a stored representation of events that can be encoded and then retrieved

Characteristics of memory

Capacity -Amount of material that can be kept in a memory store

Duration -Length of time material can be kept in a memory store

Encoding -Process of converting information from one form (code) to another so it can be stored in the memory stores and passed between them

three memory stores:

sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory

Sensory memory

Stores for each of the 5 senses

Short-term memory

Limited capacity memory store

long-term memory

Permanent memory store

Free recall

A piece of information we retrieve from a memory store without any 'assistance'

Cued recall

When we can only recall something with assistance from a cue e.g. struggle to recall a key term but find it easier if someone says "it starts with M"

Recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

Cues

Cues can be important because they contribute to superior retrieval in cued recall and recognition

Meaningful cues

Some cues are linked to material in a meaningful / organised way, specifically to you, which strengthens the remembrance of it.

Cues without meaning

something learned at the same time but isn't linked to the material, e.g. emotion or music

Reconstructive memory

memory that has been simplified, enriched, or distorted, depending on an individual's experiences and attitudes - Bartlett

Schemas

A schema is a mental structure or 'package' containing our stored knowledge

Shortening

When parts of a memory don't fit in with your schema, these are left out

Rationalisation

When parts of a memory are recalled but in a distorted way that fits your schema

Confabulation

When parts of a memory are invented to 'fill in the gaps'

What are cognitive biases?

systematic errors in thinking

Fundamental Attribution error (FAE)

Attribution is the process of trying to explain other peoples' behaviour

We naturally tend to over-emphasise personal characteristics and downplay the role of the situation

Confirmation bias

Tend to favour information that supports a belief we already hold

Hostile attribution bias

We may wrongly interpret other peoples' behaviour as threatening (hostile) when in fact it is neutral

What is cognitive priming?

When you see or hear one stimulus (the 'prime'), this affects your response to a later stimulus

Repetition priming