unit 7 - operant conditioning

for exam #4 - from the textbook

discriminative stimulus (S^D)

in operant conditioning, a stimulus indicating that a particular response (R) may lead to a particular outcome

discrete-trials paradigm

an operant conditioning paradigm (model) in which the experimenter defines the beginning and end points of each trial; each trial is discrete/separate and the experimenter decides when and how often to begin a new one

free-operant paradigm

an operant conditioning paradigm (model) in which the animal can operate a n apparatus (ex. lever) as it choose in order to obtain reinforcement/avoid punishment

skinner box

a chamber used for operant conditioning and designed so that reinforcement/punishment is delivered automatically whenever the animal makes a particular response (ex. pressing or releasing a lever)

cumulative recorder

a device used for recording responses in operant conditioning, designed in such a way that the height of the line it draws represents the total (cumulative) number of responses made up to a given time

shaping

an operant conditioning technique in which successive approximations to the desired response are reinforced `to gradually train a behavior

chaining

an operant conditioning technique in which organisms are gradually trained to execute complicated sequences of discrete responses (also backward chaining)

reinforcer

a consequence of behavior that leads to increased likelihood of that behavior in the future (ex. food)

ounisher

a consequence of behavior that leads to decreased likelihood of that behavior in the future (ex. shock)

primary reinforcer

a reinforcer, such as food, water, sleep, that is of biological value to an organism

drive reduction theory

proposed by Clark Hull, said that all learning reflects the innate, biological need to obtain primary reinforcers

negative contrast

the phenomenon in which reinforcing value of one reward is reduced because a better reward is expected (ex. sweetened water/baby/nipple experiment)

secondary reinforcer

a reinforcer that initially has no biological value but has been paired with (or predicts the arrival of) a primary reinforcer (ex. money)

token economy

an environment (ex. prison/schoolroom) in which tokens function the same way as money does in the outside world

differential reinforcement of alternative behaviors (DRA)

a method used to decrease the frequency of unwanted behaviors by instead reinforcing preferred alternative behaviorswhile minimizing reinforcement of the undesired behavior. This technique promotes positive behavior change.

positive reinforcement

a type of operant conditioning in which the response causes a reinforcer to be “added” to the environment; over time, the response becomes more frequent

positive punishment

a type of operant conditioning in which the response causes an undesirable element to be “added” to the environment; over time, the response becomes less frequent

negative reinforcement

a type of operant conditioning in which the response causes an undesirable element to be “subtracted from” the environment; over time, the response becomes more frequent

negative punishment

a type of operant conditioning in which the response causes a desirable element to be “subtracted from” the environment; over time, the response becomes less frequent

reinforcement schedule

a schedule that determines how often reinforcement is delivered in an operant conditioning paradigm

continuous reinforcement schedul

a reinforcement schedule in which every instance of the response is followed by the reinforcer

partial reinforcement schedule

a reinforcement schedule in which only some instance of the response are followed by the reinforcer

fixed-ratio schedule

a reinforcement schedule in which a specific number of responses must occur before a reinforcer is delivered; thus, FR 5 means that reinforcement arrives after every 5th response

post-reinforcement pause

in operant conditioning, a brief pause in responding that follows delivery of the reinforcer

fixed-interval (FI) schedule

a reinforcement schedule in which the first response after a fixed amount of time is reinforced; thus, FI 1-min. means that reinforcement follows the first response made after 1-minute interval since the last reinforcement

variable-ratio (VR) schedule

a reinforcement schedule in which a specific number of responses, on average, must occur before a reinforcer is delivered; thus, VR 5 means that, on average, every 5th response is reinforced

variable-interval (VI) schedule

a reinforcement schedule in which the first response after a fixed amount of time, on average, is reinforced; thus VI 1-min. means that reinforcement follows the first response made after 1-minute interval, on average, since the last reinforcement

basal ganglia

a brain region that lies at the base of the forebrain and includes the dorsal striatum

dorsal striatum

a region of the basal ganglia that is important for stimulus-response learning

orbitofrontal cortex

a brain region that is important for learning to predict the outcomes of particular responses

ventral tegmental area (VTA)

a brain region that contains dopamine-producing neurons projecting to the frontal cortex and other brain areas

hedonic value

in operant conditioning, the subject “goodness” or value of a reinforcer

motivational value

in operant conditioning, the degree to which an organism is willing to work to obtain access to a stimulus

substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc)

a part of the basal ganglia that contains dopamine-producing neurons projecting to the striatum

incentive salience hypothesis

a hypothesis that dopamine helps provide organisms with the motivation to work for reinforcement

endogenous opiod

any of a group of naturally occurring neurotransmitter-like substances that have many of the same effects as heroine, morphine, and other opiate drugs; may help signal the hedonic value of reinforcers in the brain

pathological addiction

a strong habit that is maintained despite harmful consequences (drugs)

behavioral addiction

pathological addiction to a behavior (rather than to a pharmacological substance)