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the importance of relationships as viewed by evolutionary psychologists
humans are naturally social creatures so having friends is important to interact with people
aristotle’s distinction between friends of utility, pleasure, and character
friends of utility: people who are friends with each other because of a mutual benefit, not affection
friends of pleasure: people who bond over a mutual interest
friends of character: friends who are invaluable for self-knowledge in the sense that they know us better than we do ourselves(?)
the three characteristics of close relationships and the categories of people we generally have close relationships with
close relationships are characterized by self-disclosure, trust, and concern for the other party. we usually have close relationships with parents, close friends, and partners
what determines how people feel about a relationship in social exchange theory
costs and rewards - balance determines how people feel about a relationship
what a person’s comparison level is and what peoples’ comparison level for alternatives are
a person’s comparison level is expectations about what people expect or feel they deserve out of a relationship. peoples’ comparison level for alternatives are expectations about what people can get out of alternative relationships
what equity theory says about relationships
people are motivates to pursue fairness or equity in their relationships, benefits proportional to the effort both people put into it
three factors discussed in class that affect choice of friends and how proximity is related to familiarity
proximity: the more people come into contact, the more likely people come into contact, the more likely they are to become friends, and familiarity
similarity: people similar in attitudes, values, interests, backgrounds, and personalities tend to like each other
people are more likely to like people with certain personality characteristics
the findings regarding the importance of friendship for wellbeing across the lifespan and how one’s friendship circle changes across the lifespan
friends across your lifespan are extremely important to wellbeing, shrinking friend group once career, young family needs
phubbing
looking at your cell phone when in the presence of others in a social setting
the general trend of findings with respect to phubbing
negative effect on conversational quality
conversational partner less trust-worthy, empathetic, attentive and civil
less interpersonal connectedness and poorer affiliate disposition
the two characteristics in people that have been found to be related to phubbing
people who are popc (permanently online permanently connected) and fomo both positively related to phubbing behavior
the difference between integral and incidental cellphone use during a conversational, and under which of those does the reactive/proactive use of cellphone fit
integral use is when the phone is used for part of the conversation (showing memes) and incidental use of the phone is when the phone is not part of the conversation and you’re simply using the phone.
proactive use is the specific choice to go on your phone (integral) and reactive use is the reaction which leads you to go on your phone (getting a phone call in the middle of a conversation) (incidental)
to what extent cellphone use is more or less acceptable to conversational partners
the cellphone relevance hypothesis (uses and gratifications theory)”
what is the function of the cellphone in the conversational?
what are the expectations of the conversational partners regarding cellphone use?
displacement of cellphone use by parents and why it’s concerning
parents leave their kids “on heard” and don’t spend that much time looking after them during playtime (on the playground)
difference between a friend and a social media connection
a friend is someone you see in real life and make memories with while a social media connection is someone you exchange words with over the internet or likes
the four friendship maintenance behavior categories
support, positivity, openness, interaction
gender differences in prevalence of friendship maintenance behaviors in support, positivity, and openness
levels of support within relationships: f/f is greater than f/m which is greater than m/m
levels of openness within relationships: f/f and f/m are greater than m/m
levels of positivity within relationships: same with all
the relationship between likes and comments received on fb and happiness and self-esteem in the zell and moeller fb study and in which category of friendship maintenance behaviors
support and positivity, getting more likes and comments = more happiness and self-esteem, perceiving fb community more interested in one’s good news
the general effect on romantic self-esteem of making an online-dating profile and which of the two follow up conditions led to a higher romantic self-esteem
people’s romantic self-esteem increase if a lot of people interact with their online-dating profile (validation). the conditions are expecting cmc follow up conversations
impression management
trying to control how people view you by creating a specific image of you online or in-person
what people pay attention to when making an online dating profile
picture, less to bio
what creates perceptions of a person in a dating profile
picture, conversational tone, hobbies (in descending order)
common deceptions in online dating profiles
men exaggerate their height; women underreport their weight
how the perception of deception influences the success of the first date
negatively predicts the success of the first date
romances tropes in narrative media
perfect partner is cosmically predestined, love at first sight, true soulmate should know what you’re thinking and feeling without you communicating it, sex is easy and wonderful if partner is truly meant for you
relationship maintenance behavior in addition to friendship maintenance behavior
support, positivity, interaction, openness, and building a shared identity - you as a couple, team, pair
general findings with phubbing in romantic relationships and how they differ depending on context
negative, people want attention in a romantic relationship. distinction between contexts include dates, intimate moments, and hanging out
ghosting and its two temporal dimensions
disappearing, avoiding, disengaging, exiting (gradual/sudden and long-term/short-term)
how important media is as a source of information about sex for adolescents
57% of 14-16 year olds said media was a primary source of information about sex (esp tv and movies)
approximate percentages of female and male teenagers who have viewed porn online
61% of females and 93% of males
main term used for porn and the category distinctions in this material
porn/erotica, distinctions include sexually violent material, non-violent sexual material, degrading/nondegrading material, and non-explicit sexual material
the term for the standard sexual material in typical hollywood
sexual innuendoes
differences in explicitness between network tv and streaming services
cable and streaming have more explicit sexual material than movies, radios, and tv
commonality of various levels of sexual behavior in movies and tv shows
element in over 80% of movies and tv shows
talk about sex - 68%
actual sexual behavior - 35%
intercourse depicted or strongly implied - 11%
percentage of tv shows that mention birth control or the consequences of sex
15% of tv shows mentions birth control, abstinence, or consequences of sex
which media is most to least conservative regarding sex
television, then radio, then recording industry
the effect of media on attitudes towards casual sex
sex before marriage, often shortly after first meeting is pretty much the norm
differences in the depiction of the decision to have casual sex when it comes to adolescents and adults
adolescents - whether to have sex is a difficult decision
adults - the decision is a nonissue, norm of early sexual activity, no concerns of morals or protection
the general effects of watching soap operas on the estimates of prevalence and support for extramarital sex
viewing more soap operas led to higher estimates of % of people having affairs, divorce, abortion, and illegitimate children
how marital sex is often portrayed in tv and movies
boring, uninteresting, or devalued
when advertising for contraception became somewhat acceptable and commonality of it
showed up in the 90s but still quite rare
the effect of exposure to sexually explicit material on the estimates of frequency irl of various sex acts
exposure to sexually explicit material leads to overestimation of frequency of all kinds of sexual practices
script theory
more sexually explicit materials, higher likelihood of asking for sex acts seen in those materials
attitudes related to exposure to media that objectify women
related to the tolerance of sexual harassment in men and sexual violence
status of evidence for the relationship between consuming sexually explicit materials and sex crimes
dispute about positive correlation, but heavy consumption of sexually explicit material is associated with sex crimes
effects of teens who were heavy viewers of tv with sexual content and how parental, same-sex, and opposite-sex co-viewing of this material affect early sexual behavior
teens who are heavy viewers of tv with sexual content are more likely to have sex in following year, more non-coital sexual behavior, and teen pregnancy 3 years later. parental and same-sex co-viewing lowered likelihood
why is matters that sexting is impersonal rather than mass communication and the prevalence of sexting
sexting is private and intimate and the prevalence is between 0.9% and 60%
the negative factors that sexting has been found to be related to
greater consumption of sexually explicit material, higher sensation seeking, poorer personal relationships, alcohol and marijuana use, bullying and victim of bullying
percentage of people that report non-consensual forwarding of sexts
15%
relationship status in the context of which sexting has not been found to be related to risk-taking and other negative behavior
greater relational and sexual satisfaction when sexting occurs between committed partners
contextual factors that can influence the effects of sexually explicit material
if the material is serious or playful
artistic worth and intent
relationship of the sex scene to the plot
who are you watching with
cultural context
sex in the context of romance (romantic tropes)?
were you expecting sex
three researcher’s views of sexually explicit material and why it’s important to keep in mind when reading research reports
conservative-moralist: public portrayals of sex offensive and disgusting
liberal: sexual depictions trigger fantasies, but these are not acted out
feminist: sexually explicit material is a powerful socializing agent that promotes the sexual abuse of women
the disturbing findings in the small study on college males and the labeling of forceful intercourse
men find women more desirable and arousing when they’re terrorized by assault
effects of consuming alcohol on evaluation of victim situation in violent sexual material
alcohol consumption decreases sensitivity to victim distress
general characteristics of slasher movies and those findings in respect to ‘final girls’ and their sexualization
victims (females) are pursued by violent aggressors (males). only the final girls are are not seen nude or having sex
the desensitization effects on males of watching r-rated hollywood movies everyday
over time, slasher movies became more enjoyable, less violent and offensive and less degrading to women
how desensitization works
classical conditioning
percentages of tv shows and movies that contain violence
65% of tv shows and 90% of movies
number of violent acts per hour in programming for children and adults and how much violence in children’s programming is due to cartoon violence
7.9 violent acts per hour in programming aimed at children vs 4.7/hour in adult prime time programs. 50% of 10-14 year olds had seen very violent r-rated movies, 80% for african american boys
percentages of tv crime that are murder and theft and what these percentages are irl
tv: murder, robber, kidnapping assault (90% - 25% of which are murder), theft (6%)
reality: murders are 1% of crime, theft is 65%
non-media related factors that influence violent and the estimates of the effect of violent media on societal violence
poverty, racism, crowding, drugs, parental neglect, availability of weapons, subcultures. estimate of effects of media on societal violence is 5-15%
typical reaction to media violence
fear
difference in what preschoolers and older children are afraid of
preschoolers are more scared of monsters, older children more of realistic dangers and injuries, abstract threats, behavior of character
what may be important for parents to do during co-viewing media violence with their children
discussion during co-viewing rather than just cuddling and comforting
the 4 factors in social cognitive theory that influence modeling
bandura
be exposed to media example and pay attention
encode and remember the behavior
must be able to translate into own behavior
must develop motivation (internal or external reward) to perform behavior
sensitization to violence and difference from desensitization
sensitization: reacting very strongly to seeing violence resulting in less likelihood of imitation; strongest sensitization from very graphic violence that is clearly real
desensitization: classical conditioning; initially violence evokes pain, fear, and disgust but repeated exposure with relaxed, comfortable environment, negative reaction are weakened
what type of media violence is most likely to lead to sensitization
news
the findings about young males desensitizing themselves to graphic violence on purpose
male gender-role socialization: boys desensitizing themselves so that they can watch graphic violence and seem unaffected. impress peers and dates
what are the cultivation effect of tv viewing and why this effect could become stronger with the advent of tablets and smartphones
frequent viewers of tv think the world is more dangerous and crime-ridden than infrequent viewers. viewers are all becoming more ‘frequent’
the characteristics of a violent model that appear to cause an increase in the likelihood of imitation
attractive, respected, prestigious violent model
how is violence in narrative visual media reinforced and how the value of violence is reinforced
reinforcement given to violent character in the context of the story, the edgy antihero. reinforcement of the value of violence as solution in interpersonal disputes
what type of play was mentioned in class as being important for children in order for them to learn the difference between make-believe and reality
pretend play. the news and documentaries are hard for children to believe because it’s real and unstaged
findings from the study in class in respect to prolonged exposure to media violence and empathy
empathy is negatively related to preference for violent media. prolonged exposure to media violence reduces levels of empathy in male and female adolescents
hostile attribution bias
the tendency to interpret the ambiguous behavior of others as hostile, even when others have no such intention
hostile perception bias
the tendency to perceive ambiguous social interactions as hostile
hostile expectations bias
the bias to expect aggression from others in ambiguous situations that might erupt into aggressive behavior
relationship between sensation-seeking characteristic and enjoyment of media violence and what’s found in high-sensation seeking children
sensation seeking is positively related to enjoyment of media violence. children high in sensation seeking prefer violent video games
findings relating to the strength of modeling effects by age and gender
modeling effects increase up to ages 8-12 and decrease slowly after. boys watch more violent media and are more physically violent than girls, no evidence for stronger modeling effects
the effects of general tv viewing at mean age 14 on aggressive acts at mean 16 or 22 in males an females with and without prior aggression
increase of aggressive acts against others in all cases
factors in the longitudinal study that affected adult aggression 15 years later
tv violence viewing, perceived realism of tv violence, identification with aggressive female characters, and identification with aggressive male characters
trend in media reporting on media violence effects between 1950 and 2000 and the suggested reasons for the increasing inaccuracy
media violence effects have gone from weak link, to moderate link, back to weak link. vested interests of media companies, ‘neutrality’, insufficient advocating of results by researchers
types of video games that are consistently top sellers
violent; COD, infinite warfare, battlefield 1, GTA
the point of mayhew mentioning the soldiers who couldn’t/wouldn’t shoot in successive wars and how that relates to video games
game players learn shooting behaviors. when violent game actions are rewarded in game, aggressive thoughts and behavior increase, and hostile emotions increase. playing video games can elicit hostile expectations. engaging in ‘active’ violent media, higher risk-taking in real life
the effects of playing violent video games according to apa report from 2017
“the use of violent video games results in increases in overall aggression as well as increases in the individual variables pf aggressive behaviors, aggressive cognitions, aggressive aft, desensitization, physiological arousal, and decrease in empathy”
what happened to anita sarkeesian when she set up a kickstarter to produce the videos
she was doxed, swatted, and had reputional attacks
how anita sarkeesian’s case is different from justine sacco
sacco wrote negatively about a local gym influencer at her college who had over 100k followers in the school paper and was mobbed online
the characteristics of deindividuation and in what situations this occurs
a state of reduced individuality, reduced self-awareness, and reduced attention to personal standards (in a group)
self-awareness causes people to act in accordance with values and beliefs; when self-awareness disappears, so do restraints
people are especially likely to deindividuated when they are aroused and anonymous and responsibility is diffused
characteristic of a cybermob that makes deindividuation likely
people are anonymous online
defining characteristics of cyberbullying
aggression that is intentionally and repeatedly carried out in an electronic context against a person who cannot easily defend themselves
flaming
heated, hostile, or aggressive online arguments involving insults, name-calling, and inflammatory language
harassment
direct, explicit forms of cyberbullying like sending threatening messages, derogatory comments through text or social media
doxing and privacy violations
malicious sharing of private or sensitive information about an individual online, such as personal addresses, phone numbers, or financial details
exclusion
excluding individuals from online social groups, spreading rumors or gossip to undermine their social status, or intentionally isolating them from digital communities
impersonation and identity theft
including creating fake profiles or accounts to impersonate the victim, posing misleading or harmful information about them, or stealing their digital identity to damage their reputation
cyber-stalking
the perpetrator repeatedly contacts, monitors, or follows the victim online, causing fear, intimidation, or distress
sexual harassment or exploitation
sexually explicit or inappropriate behavior online, such as sending unsolicited sexual messages, sharing explicit content without consent, or engaging in online sexual coercion
mental health results from cybervictimization
5x odds of mental health issues in general
5.9x odds of psychological distress
6.1x odds of suicidal ideation
higher chances of ptsd
depression
self harm
prevalence of cyberbullying in middle school
cyberbullying 5-8%
cybervictims 7%
both bully and victim 4%
prevalence of cyberbullying in high school
cybervictims 21%
prevalence of cyberbullying in college
cyberbullying 5%
cybervictims 6%
both bully and victim 5%
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