ap psych 7

Encoding

Encoding

the processing of information into the memory system (learning smth)

storage

the retention of encoded information over time (keep it)

Retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

information processing model

encoding, storage, retrieval

memory

the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information (ex: remembering what I ate)

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort (rehearsal)

Chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units (ex: graphic organizer)

mnemonics

learning aids, strategies, and devices that improve recall through the use of retrieval cues

method of loci

A mnemonic technique that involves associating items on a list with a sequence of familiar physical locations (Ex; grocery list and house)

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information

Deep (elaborative) processing

encode semantically processing information in a meaningful way that increases its likelihood of being stored in memory, make connections to previous knowledge

self- reference effect

tendency for an individual to have better memory for information that relates to oneself in comparison to material that has less personal relevance

Imagery

mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding

storage

sensory memory- short-term memory- long-term memory

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system- using all 5 senses

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than .5 a second

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten, 7+/-2 chunks of info, and lasts 30-60 seconds.

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

implicit memory

LTM- memories of skills that are retrieved w/o conscious effort- includes memories of skills and procedures. (ex: riding a bike)

explicit memory

LTM- memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"- includes semantic memories and episodic memories.

semantic memory

memory for knowledge about the world, facts known

episodic memory

memory for one's personal past experiences (ex: 8th grade grad)

explicit memory

hippocampus- where memories processed, frontal lobe- where memories are stored.

inplicit memory

Cerebellum- forming and storing implicit memory

long-term potentiation

an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory( More you do it more the pathway is in your brain)

amygdala (memory)

emotional memories are involved here, trigger stress hormones that create strong memories

flashbulb memory

A clear and vivid long-term memory of an especially meaningful and emotional event.

recall

The retrieval of memory from scratch. A harder form of retrieval. (ex: written q's)

recognition

identifying items previously learned( ex: multiple choice)

priming cues

the activation of particular associations in memory, sparked by sounds, smells, and visual objects.

context dependent memory

The theory that information learned in a particular situation or place is better remembered when in that same situation or place. (ex: driving by an old friends house)

state-dependent memory

The theory that information learned in a particular state of mind (e.g., depressed, happy, somber) is more easily recalled when in that same state of mind. Ex: caffeine, tired

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past, cant remeber past

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

encoding failure

failure to process information into memory bc not paying attention, dont care,

storage decay

memories weaken over time when they are not used

forgetting curve

Ebbinghaus's finding that the rate at which information is forgotten is greatest immediately after the information has been acquired, and declines more gradually over time

retrieval failure

failure to remember something from long term memory

tip of the tongue phenomenon

the temporary inability to remember something you know, accompanied by a feeling that it's just out of reach

proactive interference

previous blocks new- smth you learned earlier disrupts the recall of smth you experience later (Ex: new year, birthday)

retroactive interference

recent blocks old- when new info makes it harder to recall smth you learned earlier (Ex: cant think of freshman squedule)

motivated forgetting (repression)

pushing memories into the unconscious (psychodynamic approach)

misinformation effect

when misleading information has corrupted one's memory of an event

cognition

mental activities and processes, associated w/ thinking, knowing, and remebering

metacognition

thinking about one's thinking

concept

mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people EX: what you think of when you hear party

prototype

mental images of the best example of a concept EX: triangle

divergent thinking

thinking that searches for multiple possible answers for a question

convergent thinking

thinking pointed toward one solution

inductive reasoning

thinking specific →general EX: Golden retrievers have ears → golden retrievers are dogs → therefore all dogs have ears EX #2 ik a rich nda girl, so all nda girls r rich (generalize)

deductive reasoning

thinking general →specific EX: All dogs have ears → golden retrievers are dogs → therefore they have ears

algorithms

a step by step strategy for solving a problem, methodically leading to a specific solution

heuristics

a mental shortcut, a step saving strategy that could lead to error.

insight

a sudden realization of a problem's solution

confirmation bias

tendency to search for info that confirms are theory, disregarding contradictory evidence EX; bible, politics, antivax

mental set

tendency to approach problems using a mindset/ methods that has worked in the past EX: math

fixation

tendency to get stuck in one's thinking, inability to see problems with a new perspective or a new way of thinking EX; draw three lines through 9 dots example in class

functional fixedness

limits a person to using an object only in the way it is traditionally used EX: when you can't problem solve if u dont have the tool u need.

intuition

effortless, automatic gut feeling or thought

availabilty heuristic

we estimate the likelihood of an event based on its availability in our memory, if an event comes to mind we presume its common EX: plane crash vs motorcycle, ppl believe airplane more dangerous bc of media

representavieness heuristic

judging likelihood of things of how well they represent or match particular prototypes, EX: stereotypes, judging customers.

overconfidence

tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our knowledge or skills

belief bias

tendency to hold on our beliefs eve when given contradictory evidence EX; flat earthers, covid

framing

the way a question is posed can significantly affect ur judgements and decisions Ex: marketing, discounts at stores

phoneme

the smallest units of sounds

morpheme

the smallest units of meaning

semantics

set of rules for deriving meaning

syntax

how the order of words make meaning

0-4 mo.

receptive languages, assoc. w/ sound and facial movements

4 mo

productive language, babbling in multilingual sounds and gestures

10 mo

babbling that mimics parents or households language

12 mo

one-word stage (holophrastic), understand and begin to say nouns

18-24 mo

two-word (telegraphic) adding verbs to make sentences EX: Go park

24+ mo

speaking full sentences and understanding them

bf skinner

language acquisition theory that believes language is learned

chomsky

language acquisition theory that children are prewired with the capability to learn a new language, their is a critical period to learn a language

aphasia

loss of ability to understand or express language

brocas

can't pronounce words (slurring)

wernicke

can't comprehend

linguistic determinishm

benjamin whorf, theory that our specific language determines how we think EX; greece has 10 different words for love w/ different meanings, america has one word and we use it for everything