HSA FInal Exam chapter 10-18 Test Review

Neutrophils

Phagocytic; particularly effective against bacteria. Release cytotoxic chemicals from granule. Most common leukocyte; lifespan of minutes to days

Eosinophils

Phagocytic cells; particularly effective with antigen-antibody complexes. Release antihistamines. Increase in allergies and parasitic infections. Lifespan of minutes to days

Basophils

Promotes inflammation. Least common leukocyte; lifespan unknown

Agranulocytes including lymphocytes and monocytes

Body defenses. Group consists of two major cell types from different lineages

Lymphocytes

Primarily specific (adaptive) immunity; T cells directly attack other cells (cellular immunity). B cells release antibodies (humoral immunity); natural killer cells are similar to T cells but nonspecific. Initial cells originate in bone marrow, but secondary production occurs in lymphatic tissue

Monocytes

Very effective phagocytic cells engulfing pathogens or worn-out cells; also serve as antigen-presenting cells (APCs) for other components of the immune system. Produced in red bone marrow; referred to as macrophages after leaving circulation

Hemopoiesis/Hematopoiesis

The process by which the body produces blood.

Natural killer (NK) cells

capable of recognizing cells that do not express “self” proteins on their plasma membrane or that contain foreign or abnormal markers. These “nonself” cells include cancer cells, cells infected with a virus, and other cells with atypical surface proteins.

B lymphocytes (B cells) and T lymphocytes (T cells)

play prominent roles in defending the body against specific pathogens (disease-causing microorganisms) and are involved in specific immunity. B cells undergo a maturation process in the
b
one marrow, whereas T cells undergo maturation in the thymus.

Plasma cells

a type of B cell, produce the antibodies or immunoglobulins that bind to specific foreign or abnormal components of plasma membranes.

T cells

provide immunity by physically attacking foreign or diseased cells.

Memory cells

a variety of both B and T cells that form after exposure to a pathogen and mount rapid responses upon subsequent exposures. Unlike other leukocytes, memory cells live for many years.

What are the steps of hemostasis?

Injury; a blood vessel is severed
Vascular spasm; the smooth muscle in the vessel wall contracts near the injury point
Platelet plug formation; platelets are activated by chemicals released at the injury site, the platelets become spiked and stick together
Coagulation; fibrinogen is converted to fibrin which forms a mesh that traps for platelets, producing a clot

Hematopoiesis

The formation and development of blood cells.

Agglutination

refers to the resulting clumps of red blood cells that are formed in such an antigen-antibody reaction.

Rh blood group

classified according to the presence or absence of a second erythrocyte antigen identified as Rh.

Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn (HDN)

Antibodies to the Rh antigen are produced only in Rh− individuals after exposure to the antigen. This process, called sensitization, occurs following a transfusion with Rh-incompatible blood or, more commonly, with the birth of an Rh+ baby to an Rh− mother.

Arteriosclerosis

The generalized loss of compliance; "hardening of the arteries"

Peripheral arterial disease

occurs when atherosclerosis affects arteries in the legs. A major risk factor for both arteriosclerosis and atherosclerosis is advanced age, as the conditions tend to progress over time.

Edema

Swelling due to excessive liquid in the tissues

Circulatory Shock

a life-threatening condition in which the circulatory system is unable to maintain blood flow to adequately supply sufficient oxygen and other nutrients to the tissues to maintain cellular metabolism.

Hypovolemic shock

An abnormally low volume of blood circulating through the body

Anaphylactic shock

a severe allergic response that causes the widespread release of histamines, triggering vasodilation throughout the body.

Obstructive shock

occurs when a significant portion of the vascular system is blocked.

Cardiogenic shock

the inability of the heart to maintain cardiac output. Most often, it results from a myocardial infarction (heart attack), but it may also be caused by arrhythmias, valve disorders, cardiomyopathies, cardiac failure.

Anemia

the number of RBCs or hemoglobin is deficient

Sickle cell anemia

A genetic disorder involving the production of an abnormal type of hemoglobin that delivers less oxygen to tissues and causes erythrocytes to assume a sickle

Thrombocytosis

a condition in which there are too many platelets

Thrombophilia

also called hypercoagulation, is a condition in which there is a tendency to form thrombosis

Hemophilia

a group of related genetic disorders in which certain plasma clotting factors are lacking or inadequate or nonfunctional.

lymphatic system

a series of vessels, ducts, and trunks that remove interstitial fluid from the tissues and return it to the blood.

lymphedema

If the lymphatic system is damaged in some way, such as by being blocked by cancer cells or destroyed by injury, interstitial fluid accumulates in the tissue spaces

Lymphatic capillaries

vessels where interstitial fluid enters the lymphatic system to become lymph.

primary lymphoid organs

the bone marrow and thymus gland

Bone Marrow

all blood cells, including lymphocytes, are formed in the red bone marrow. The B cell undergoes nearly all of its development in the red bone marrow

Thymus

where T cells mature, is a bilobed organ found in the space between the sternum and the aorta of the heart Connective tissue holds the lobes closely together but also separates them and forms a capsule.

secondary lymphoid organs

include the lymph nodes, spleen, and lymphoid nodules

Lymph Nodes

function to remove debris and pathogens from the lymph and are thus sometimes referred to as the “filters of the lymph”. Any bacteria that infect the interstitial fluid are taken up by the lymphatic capillaries and transported to a regional lymph node.

spleen

a vascular organ that is somewhat fragile due to the absence of a capsule. Sometimes called the “filter of the blood” because of its extensive vascularization and the presence of macrophages and dendritic cells that remove microbes and other materials from the blood, including dying red blood cells. The spleen also functions as the location of immune responses to blood-borne pathogens.

Tonsils

located along the inner surface of the pharynx and are important in developing immunity to oral pathogens

lymphoid nodules

consist of a dense cluster of lymphocytes without a surrounding fibrous capsule

adenoid

The name for a inflamed or swollen tonsil

Bronchus-associated lymphoid tissue (BALT)

consists of lymphoid follicular structures with an overlying epithelial layer found along the bifurcations of the bronchi, and between bronchi and arteries.

Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)

consists of an aggregate of lymphoid follicles directly associated with mucous membrane.

What is the process of a primary infection?

The pathogen bypasses barrier defenses and starts to multiply in the host’s body.
During the first 4 to 5 days, the innate immune response will partially control, but not stop the pathogen growth.
The slower but more specific and effective adaptive immune response gears up and becomes progressively stronger, it will begin to clear the pathogen from the body. This clearance is referred to as seroconversion. It should be noted that seroconversion does not necessarily mean a patient is getting well.

Barrier Defenses

part of the body’s most basic innate defense mechanisms. They are not a response to infections, but rather are continuously working to protect against pathogens by preventing them from entering the body, destroying them after they enter, or flushing them out before they can establish themselves.

Innate Immune Response

the first line of physiological defense. Innate responses occur rapidly, but with less specificity and effectiveness than the adaptive immune response. Within the first few days of an infection, a series of antibacterial proteins are induced, each with activities against certain bacteria. Additionally, interferons are induced that protect cells from viruses in their vicinity. Finally, the innate immune response does not stop when the adaptive immune response is developed.

phagocyte

a cell that is able to surround and engulf a particle or cell

cytokine

a signaling molecule that allows cells to communicate with each other over short distances.

chemokine

a soluble chemical mediator similar to cytokines except that its function is to attract cells (chemotaxis) from longer distances.

Interferons

Early induced proteins made in virally infected cells that cause nearby cells to make antiviral proteins

Benefits of the Adaptive Immune Response

Specificity, immunological memory, self recognition

primary adaptive response.

The first exposure to a pathogen; Symptoms of a first infection, called primary disease, are always relatively severe because it takes time for an initial adaptive immune response to a pathogen to become effective.

secondary adaptive immune response

stronger and faster than the primary response, often eliminating the pathogen before it can cause damage or even symptoms.
This secondary response is the basis of immunological memory, which gives us immunity.

Helper T Cell

release cytokines, which help to develop and regulate other immune system cells

Cytotoxic T Cell

kill target cells by inducing apoptosis using the same mechanism as NK cells: killing a virally infected cell before the virus can complete its replication cycle results in the production of no infectious particles

Suppressor T Cell

control T Cell response, in order to prevent too many T cells from being formed during an immune response

What are the three stages in the immune response to many cancers?

Elimination occurs when the immune response first develops toward tumor-specific antigens specific to the cancer and actively kills most cancer cells.
Equilibrium is the period that follows, during which the remaining cancer cells are held in check.
Escape of the immune response, and resulting disease, occurs because many cancers mutate and no longer express any specific antigens for the immune system to respond to.

Lymphedema

a condition in which lymphatic fluid builds up in the body’s soft tissues.

severe combined immunodeficiency disease (SCID).

caused by many different genetic defects which result in impaired B cell and T cell arms of the adaptive immune response. Children with this disease usually die of opportunistic infections within their first year of life unless they receive a bone marrow transplant.

Type I hypersensitivties

Allergies and allergic asthma
‘Immediate Hypersensitivity’: usually rapid and occur within just a few minutes
Mild allergies are usually treated with antihistamines
Severe allergies that may cause anaphylactic shock, which can be fatal within 20 to 30 minutes if untreated;

Type II hypersensitivities

Occurs during mismatched blood transfusions and blood compatibility diseases such as erythroblastosis fetalis

Type III hypersensitivities

Occurs with diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus

Type IV hypersensitivities

takes 24 to 72 hours to develop
The classical test for delayed hypersensitivity is the tuberculin test for tuberculosis, where bacterial proteins from M. tuberculosis are injected into the skin. A couple of days later, a positive test, as indicated by an induration, means that the patient has been exposed to the bacteria and exhibits a cellular immune response to it

nares

open into the nasal cavity, which is separated into left and right sections by the nasal septum

nasal septum

formed anteriorly by a portion of the septal cartilage and posteriorly by the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone and the thin vomer bones.

Conchae

increase the surface area of the nasal cavity, disrupting the flow of air as it enters the nose and causing air to bounce along the epithelium, where it is cleaned and warmed. The conchae and meatuses trap water during exhalation preventing dehydration.

Paranasal sinuses

serve to warm and humidify incoming air and are lined with a mucosa which produces mucus.

Pharynx

divided into three major regions: the nasopharynx, the oropharynx, and the laryngopharynx

oropharynx

bordered superiorly by the nasopharynx and anteriorly by the oral cavity. The oropharynx contains two distinct sets of tonsils:
The palatine tonsils.
A palatine tonsil is one of a pair of structures located laterally in the oropharynx in the area of the fauces.
The lingual tonsils.
The lingual tonsil is located at the base of the tongue.

laryngopharynx

inferior to the oropharynx and posterior to the larynx. It continues the route for ingested material and air until its inferior end, where the digestive and respiratory systems diverge.

Larynx

ormed by several pieces of cartilage. Three large cartilage pieces form the major structure of the larynx.

Thyroid cartilage (anterior)

he largest piece of cartilage that makes up the larynx and consists of the laryngeal prominence, or “Adam’s apple,” which tends to be more prominent in males.

Epiglottis (superior)

Three smaller, paired cartilages—the arytenoids, corniculates, and cuneiforms—attach to the and the vocal cords and muscle that help move the vocal cords to produce speech.

Cricoid cartilage

The thick cricoid cartilage forms a ring, with a wide posterior region and a thinner anterior region.

Trachea

formed by 16 to 20 stacked, C-shaped pieces of hyaline cartilage that are connected by dense connective tissue; to stretch and expand slightly during inhalation and exhalation, whereas the rings of cartilage provide structural support and prevent the trachea from collapsing.

Bronchial Tree

A branched system of air-conducting tubes that begins at the trachea and ends at the terminal bronchioles in the lungs. It goes from the main R/L bronchi, the lobar bronchi 3R 2L, the tertiary bronchi 10 R/L, the bronchioles, and the terminal bronchioles

Respiratory zone

includes structures that are directly involved in gas exchange; the terminal bronchioles join a respiratory bronchiole, the smallest type of bronchiole, which then leads to an alveolar duct, opening into a cluster of alveoli.

Alveoli

Tiny, thin-walled air sacs at the end of the bronchial tree where gas exchange (O₂ ↔ CO₂) occurs between air and blood.

Cilia

hair-like structures on the respiratory epithelium that:
Move in coordinated waves → push mucus upward
Trap & remove dust, pathogens, debris → Mucociliary escalator → clears airways → protects lungs

Pleura

a serous membrane that surrounds the lung. The right and left pleurae, which enclose the right and left lungs, respectively, are separated by the mediastinum.

visceral pleura

the layer that is superficial to the lungs and extends into and lines the lung fissures

parietal pleura

the outer layer that connects to the thoracic wall, the mediastinum, and the diaphragm.

What two major functions do the pleurae perform?

Produce pleural fluid that lubricates surfaces, reduces friction to prevent trauma during breathing, and creates surface tension that helps maintain the position of the lungs against the thoracic wall.
The pleurae also create a division between major organs that prevents interference due to the movement of the organs, while preventing the spread of infection.

Pulmonary Ventilation

The difference in pressures drives _ because air flows down a pressure gradient, that is, air flows from an area of higher pressure to an area of lower pressure.

What are the two muscle groups that are used during normal inspiration?

the diaphragm and the external intercostal muscles. Additional muscles can be used if a bigger breath is required.

normal expiration

passive, meaning that energy is not required to push air out of the lungs.
The elasticity of the lung tissue causes the lung to recoil, as the diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax following inspiration.
The thoracic cavity and lungs decrease in volume, causing an increase in intrapulmonary pressure

Quiet breathing

also known as eupnea, is a mode of breathing that occurs at rest and does not require the cognitive thought of the individual. During , the diaphragm and external intercostals must contract.

Diaphragmatic breathing

also known as deep breathing, requires the diaphragm to contract. As the diaphragm relaxes, air passively leaves the lungs.

Costal breathing

also known as a shallow breath, requires contraction of the intercostal muscles. As the intercostal muscles relax, air passively leaves the lungs.

Forced breathing

also known as hyperpnea, is a mode of breathing that can occur during exercise or actions that require the active manipulation of breathing, such as singing.
During forced breathing, inspiration and expiration both occur due to muscle contractions

What happens during forced inspiration?

muscles of the neck contract and lift the thoracic wall, increasing lung volume.

What happens during forced expiration?

accessory muscles of the abdomen contract, forcing abdominal organs upward against the diaphragm. This helps to push the diaphragm further into the thorax, pushing more air out.

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)

a term used to represent a number of respiratory diseases, including chronic bronchitis and emphysema. ____ is a chronic condition with most symptoms appearing in middle-aged or older adults. Signs and symptoms include shortness of breath, cough, and sputum production.

Lung Cancer

a leading cause of cancer death among men and women. Smoking is the most significant risk factor for lung cancer, with 90% of cases in men and 80% of cases in women attributed to tobacco smoking. Signs and symptoms may include shortness of breath, wheezing, blood in the mucus, hoarseness, and trouble swallowing

Sleep Apnea

a chronic disorder that occurs in children and adults. It is characterized by the cessation of breathing during sleep. These episodes may last for several seconds or several minutes, and may differ in the frequency with which they are experienced. Sleep apnea leads to poor sleep. Signs and symptoms include fatigue, evening napping, irritability, memory problems, morning headaches, and excessive snoring.

continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) machine

Treatment of sleep apnea commonly includes the use of thi

oral vestibule

the U-shaped, slit-like space in your mouth located between your lips/cheeks and your teeth/gums

fauces

the opening between the oral cavity and throat

Esophagus

a muscular tube that connects the pharynx to the stomach