A-Level History Britain:Challenge and transformation

How did the Great Reform Act (1832) make Britain more democratic?

-extended franchise to include middle class men=now encompassed 8% adult pop.vs 2%
-redrew constituency boundaries=major industrial areas represented for first time
-uniform franchise accross the country
BUT did nothing for working class+formaly stopped women from voting

1851-ways in which the monarchy was democratic (2)

-constitutional monarchy=institution of the monarchy was established on traditions and habits rather that real, constitutionally defined power
Eg. 1839 bedchamber crisis=Vic.refused to appoint Peel as PM following WG loss of support from HoC=2 years of gov wracked with scandal+critisism=Vic forced to appoint Peel after clear TM in next gen elec in 1841, demonstrated definite lack of control over parl
-royal assent=formality, always given since Anne

1851-ways in which the monarchy was undemocratic (3)

-monarchy=anathema to democracy
-monarch could flood HoL with newly elected peers to block leg they disagreed with
-vic tried to exercise further control by trying to influence the actions of PMs
Eg. Ministers she disliked were occasionally dismissed=the pernicious bias she displayed was sometimes heeded by the governments of the time

1851-how democratic was monarchy overall?

while the political power of the monarchy had become significantly diminished by 1851, the influence it placed in the hands of a single person was undeniable, making its mere presence within the British political system an anathema to democracy.

1851-ways in which parliament and government were democratic (2)

-primary house=HoC, used system of representational democracy

MPs elected every 7 years, debated legislation+policy on behalf of the public
-GRA'32=1/5 men enfranchised, urban areas gained greater rep in parliament=becoming more representative of an increasingly industrial Britain, and reflective of where the country's money was coming from

1851-ways in which parliament and government were undemocratic (3)

-HoL=unelected landed elite=not representative of the lives+concerns of majority.pop
-HoL=dominant house in parliament=fuled by the aristocracy

unlimited amendments (bar fiscal bills), most PMs(+therefore ministers)were lords+also dominated the executive, by 1850, only 20-25% MPs had no connection to aristocracy=most likely held similar views to the lords, diminishing chance of further reform
-after GRA'32, newly enfranchised middle-class men becoming effectively adopted into the ruling elite and, now content with their newfound political power, assuming the associated stagnant views on political reform=uninterested in further extension of the franchise

1851-how democratic was gov+parl overall?

Overall, despite having key democratic elements, parliament (and therefore government and the running of the country) was ultimately controlled by a select group of elites who were unrepresentative of Britain's population and had little interest in furthering the development of a more democratic political system.

1851-ways in which the influence of the people was democratic (2)

-GRA'32 extended the franchise by approximately 50% to include middle class men eg.shopkeepers+tenant farmers, also regulated voting requirements across the country
-significant indirect impact from public
Eg.chartists used mostly peaceful means such as petitions to campaign for political reforms such as universal male suffrage+wage for MPs-though unsuccessful, their actions in the 'year of revolutions' made gov fearful of the spreading contagion of revolution=reform put permanently on the political agenda+5/6 chartist aims achieved by 1911

1851-ways in which the influence of the people was undemocratic (5)

-GRA'32 did nothing to politically empower the workers who made up the majority of Britain's population+formally disenfranchised women (a considerable step back in creating the universal sufferage required of a true democracy)
-secret ballot not introduced until 1878=culture of treating (bribing), violence, and even forms of kidnapping (known as cooping) surrounding elections, +wealthy landlords could evict tenants who didnt vote for them/their preferred candidate=many voters couldn't vote freely, something else which undermined the impression of democracy given by the extension of the franchise
-still many pocket boroughs controlled by a single wealthy family
-property qualification of at least £300 to stand as an MP+no salary=40% uncontested seats
=voting made pointless
-Actions of groups such as the chartists suggest that the country was nowhere near as democratic as it needed to be

1851-how democratic was the influence of the public overall?

Overall, by 1851, the influence of the people over the governing of Britain was minimal and for the most part indirect. However, the crucial involvement and influence of the people was growing despite not yet being as great as it needed to be for Britain to be considered truly democratic.

How democratic was Britain by 1851-conclusion

While its developing electoral system allowed Britain to call itself democratic, the country was far from being a true democracy. This is because, as suggested by what Robert Carlyle described as the "Condition of England Question", Britain's entire political system was dominated by an exclusive class of ruling elites who paid no mind to the workers who had enabled the country's growth and industrialisation, and were only interested in enacting reform when trying protected themselves from revolution. Although, it should be noted that the reform that took place prior to 1851 was small but significant and paved the way for greater change in the future=taking small steps towards democracy?

What were the 6 aims of the Chartists?

-universal male suffrage
-removal of MP property qualification
-salary for MP
-yearly gen elec
-secret ballot
-electoral districts of equal size (pop.)

What were the chartists' main campaign methods?

-created 3 petitions (1839,'42,'48), all rejected by parliament

2nd got 3mil signatures suggesting a growing frustration at the state of the political system
-held rallies
=protests not organised by chartists were held after failure of petitions = feared by gov

Who were the ruling elite?

=upper echelons of British society
-dominance and wealth came from land ownership which allowed them to influence HoC

agriculural developments allowed maintained wealth and influence after extension of the franchise

How did the GRA'32 expand the ruling elite?

Those newly enfranchised became adopted into the ruling elite, adopted same stagnant views on political reform

desire to emulate social superiors

What were the Corn Laws and why were they passed?

1815
high protectionist tariffs on imported grain
The napolionic wars kept grain prices high by limiting imports, the tariffs aimed to keep grain prices artificially high for the benefit of the land owners who made up parliament
Some also argued that a reliance on foreign corn would reduce labourers' wages and reduce self sufficiency

How did the corn laws divide the Conservative Party?

-by the 1840s Tory leader Robert Peel wanted to repeal the corn laws

was sympathetic to free trade ideas (had already removed all other tariffs), had seen how the inflated grain prices had only exasperated the negative impact of the Irish Famine(1845-49), persuaded by the anti-corn law league (=led by C+B, early Lib.foundations?)
-BUT as rich land owners, approx.2/3 of the party were in favour of protectionism+saw the famine as a poor excuse for repeal
=a divide was created between the pelites and the rest of the party (notably Disraeli+Bentink)
lack of confidence had already forced peel to step down as leader once
when Peel had to use the Whigs to pass the repeal a clear lack of confidence from his own party was demonstrated=peelites left 1848

Why else was the Tory party fractured by the 1850s?

-other disagreements=early fracture lines

eg.peel+wellington supported the Catholic emancipation act (1829) but ultratories opposed such reform
-after peelites left, parliament was made up of many small factions. who couldn't hold a maj
-Disraeli was the only Tory left who was capable of leading the party, but he was not well liked

Which groups made up the Liberals? Why was this a disadvantage to them?

Peelites, Whigs, Radicals, Irish MPs
Although appealing to a wide range of voters, being a politically broad church meant that they often failed to reach a consensus amongst themselves

Who were the Peelites?

MPs that had broken away from the Conservative Part after the repeal of the corn laws
-supported free trade (some where industrialists)
-generally supported Whigs but could be their fiercest critics
-eg.Peel, Gladstone, Aberdeen

Who were the Whigs?

-founded in opposition to the catholic rule of JimII
-favoured parl.as the exec function of gov.over monarchy
-favoured moderate political reform (GRA'32) and religious tolleration
-believed gov should have the consent of the governed
-aristocracy+wealthy urbanites
Eg.Earl Grey

Who were the radicals?

advocated broader voting rights than liberals, advocated democracy, reforms in lower classes
-supported free trade (anti corn law league)
-generally supported Whigs but didnt think they went far enough
-eg.Cobden and Bright

Who were the Irish MPs?

=105 MPs
-support was split between whatever party would agree to their demands
-wanted greater independence for Ireland

Protectionism

the theory or practice of shielding a country's domestic industries from foreign competition by taxing imports.

Tory Paternalism

Belief that it wasnt the gov.place to help the poor, that the wealthy elites should instead

free trade

the movement of goods and services among nations without political or economic barriers

Laissez-faire

Idea that government should play as small a role as possible in economic affairs, was increasingly adopted by more progressive Whigs, linked to the idea that everyone should be able to become successful through their own self will

Why did the Liberal party form in 1859?

-Formed 1859, Russel felt that the current min.Con.gov. To be dangerous+unconstitutional
-Palmerston felt it was the responsibility of the Lib.to for a gov.that held the confidence of the people
+felt the gov had failed to maintain peace in the new unifying Italy

What were Gladstone's key political beliefs? (6)

=shaped by the idea that gov.should act along moral guidelines+personal involvement in politics could only be justified if it served god's will
-peace, retrenchment, and reform
-free trade=only morally sound economic system
-reform was best carried out voluntarily by the impacted individuals, gov.should only intervene when the failed
-privileges which protected certain groups in society were damaging to everyone
-ruling classes were best suited for gov.but had a moral duty to not put their own interests first . BUT, obsession with morality=hard to define, eg.talked to prostitutes about how they were immoral but never did anything in gov.to improve their situation

Who were the Aristocrats in the Liberal party?

=old Whigs
-gen.supported non-conformists
-support was limited as they tried to control reform in order to maintain their own power

Who were the middle class businessmen and professionals in the Liberal party?

=recently enfranchised, well educated, frequent church goers (many=dissenters/non-conformists)
-where most support came from
-desired an ordered society in which they could at least maintain+pos.increase their wealth
-believed in free trade, freedom of the press, religion, etc.

Who were the Peelites in the Liberal party?

=former conservatives eg.Gladstone
-mostly there to support free trade
-most from wealth commercial/industrial backgrounds

Who were the Radicals in the Liberal party?

=middle class, wanted to change social order
-supported reform to greatest extent
-opposed pol.+econ.dom.of landowning classes + position of CofE as the est.Church
-wanted extension of franchise, removal of gov.restrictions, free trade

Who was John Bright? What were his political aims/beliefs?

=a radical Lib.MP from 1843-1889
-thought at least some of the working classes should be enfranchised, supporting eg.Reform League
-supported the Secretary ballot
-was a v.strong public speaker (=threat to Disraeli), this enabled further political reform as he was able to eg.persuade Gladstone that extending the franchise would be a good thing

What is Gladstonian Liberalism?

A version of liberalism with a central belief that focused around free trade, laissez-faire, freedom of the individual and meritocracy. It was justified by morality before economical or political sense - but of course morality is subjective
-placed emphasis on small gov.(who didn't interfere with the lives of the people)
-name credits Gladstone with having sig.influence over the dev.of politics in the period

Explain the Liberal slogan "Peace, retrenchment, and reform"

Peace=wanted to maintain peace with other nations, allowing for trade+development.industry without disruptions from conflict
Retrenchment=wanted to cut back on gov.spending=lower taxes (+Peace=lower taxes=people free to spend money as they pleased
Reform=changes should be made to laws/institutions which prevented people from acting as they pleased (=contradictory to policy of small gov.)

How did "laissez-faire" and "self-help" apply to the Liberal Party?

-Laissez-Faire=state should not interfere with the workings of the economy
-Self-Help=mid.Vic.gospel for elite working class centred on idea that people should be constantly striving to improve themselves
Both link to Lib.emphasis on the individual by advocating for limited gov.interference, allowing people to act as they pleased
(BUT, small gov.=this wasn't always practical/contradicted other policies

What were the key developments which enabled the growth of the liberal party?(3)

-rise of the provincial press
-model craft unions
-political activities of non-conformists

How did the rise of the provincial press help the Liberal Party?

-press=prev.dom.by London
-railways, telegrams, removal of stamp duties, removal of newspaper duties(Lib'61)=rise in no.titles+circulation of the provincial press
-most new press=Lib.owners, employees, leadership
=able to influence voters in industrial towns across eg.NE(eg.Newcastle chronicle)
=more support of the Liberal Party

How did Model (Craft) Unions help the Liberal Party?

=small unions consisting of skilled workers (eg.boilermakers, first to organise into a union) which functioned as friendly societies, giving funds to members in times of hardship
=regarded selves as elite of the working class(enfrachised'67, high membership fees)
-preferred peaceful bargaining to strikes, utilised self hep to improve eg.working conditions=won respect of politicians eg.Gladstone(='67)
-supported Lib.in hopes of improving own legal status
-trade unions supported small no.Lib.MPs after 1874

How did no-conformists help the Liberal Party?

=Protestants who had separated from est.CofE/refused to accept customary practices (included Quakers, Presbyterians)
-wanted to achieve equal treatment with CofE, end privilege as est.Church
=campaign led by the Liberation Society to ensure a solidly Lib.non-Conformist vote
-=nearly 50% churchgoing pop.with the most influential+wealthiest living in Lib.Dom.industrial areas

What were the key factors uniting and dividing Liberals?

UNITING:
-support of free-trade
-Laissez-Faire+self-help attitudes
-belief in min.some pol.reform
DIVIDING:
-wealth/class differences = diff.prorities
-diff.religious beliefs
-the extent to which they supported pol.+soc.reform

What were the key weaknesses of mid-C.19th Conservatism?

-Party split '46(corn laws repeal), Derby frequently failed to strengthen by winning back Peelites=loss of political power, Lib.monopoly until '65,
-had failed to establish true grass-root support through eg.newspapers
-slow to move away from outdated and unpopular policies (esp.in HoL), had to change direction in order to win over newly enfranchised workers(eg.abandon protectionism in 1850s)
-As maj.pop.=not literate, public meetings+strong speakers were a key way to win support, faced sig.comp.from Lib orators eg.Cobden+Bright
-Was a lack of suitable leadership, one of the few MPs good enough to lead the party was Disraeli, however he was disliked by most of the party due to his Jewish, non-aristocratic background="an unavoidable necessity"

What were the key political beliefs of Benjamin Disraeli?

-One-Nation Conservatism
Persuaded other Conservatives away from protectionism, belief in limited pol.reform in order to increase party support
-developed ideas on the need for social reform

What ideological changes did Disraeli persuade the Conservative Party to adopt? How+with what impact?

-persuaded party to abandon belief in protectionism=would improve image with electorate with free trade having undoubtedly contributed to the improving economy and living standards
-spoke about developed ideas on political reform=done with out committing to any detailed proposals eg.GRA'67, hoped new electorate would support Con.Party
=conservative victory in election of 1874
(Had more foresight than Derby?)

What were the key principles of Disreali's Conservative Party?(3)

-preservation of the establishment
-appealing to both the aristocracy and to the working classes
-the British Empire

What was the role of preservation of the establishment in the Conservative Party?

-aimed to preserve the long standing institutions of the monarchy, the aristocracy (still needed core support), and the CofE so that they could working in the interests of the rest of society
-encouraged a paternalistic approach to soc., recognised the real social issues faced by people at the time and sought to use this system to tackle them (unlike Lib.s who did nothing)

What was the role of appealing to both the aristocracy and the working classes?

-aimed to unite the aristocracy and working classes over how they could benefit each other without entirely dismantling the current class system (=reinforce rather than change)
-saw Liberals as members of the middle classes who attacked the aristocracy while failing to help the working classes (self help=alienated working classes, required some money in. The first place)
=conservatives to gain a wider support base through their different policy

What was the role of the British Empire?

-wanted to defend +pos.expand the British empire while competing with emerging powers eg.USA, Ru.,De.
-brought econ.benefits eg.a ready market,+brought country together over a common cause/sense of achievement
-Lib., on the other hand, were seen as being focused more on domestic vs foreign policy-freedom, peace+rretrenchment

What were the key differences in regional support for the Conservative and Liberal Parties?

Con.=gen.support came from landed classes in rural areas, although still some borough support eg.Liverpool
Lib.=most support came from urban, industrial areas, esp.in North where non-conformists+provincial papers were particularly influential

What were the key differences in political dominance for the Conservative and Liberal Parties?

Con.=held perm.maj.In HoL=reinforced party of the elite, gave financial advantages, added electoral influence (secret ballot)
Lib=most members wee MPs

What were the key differences in religion for the Conservative and Liberal Parties?

Con.=party of the Anglican Church, when Glad.policies were seen as threatening to the Church, CofE became a bastion of Con.support
Lib.=most MPs Anglican (82% in 1868), but were reliant still o support from non-conformist groups

What were the key differences in clubs and organisations for the Conservative and Liberal Parties?

Con.=tried to expand support base after '67:
-Con.working mens' clubs = more pop.than Lib.as non-conformists often forbade alcohol
-'67=National Union of Conservative and Constitutional Associations, = used by John Gorst+Con.central office from '70 to spread Con.propaganda+policies to local associations

Lib.=key org.s outside parliament were driven by non-conformists, eg.UKAlliance which sold 25k copies of its newspaper, alliance news, weekly
+model union support + own working mens' clubs

What was the Primrose League?

Group that promoted the party and supported aspiring MPs. Membership depended on subscription
-set up in 1883 after the death of of Disraeli to promote Con.values, it was a demonstration of the legacy left by both him and Gorst on the Conservative Party and its transformation from the party of the elite+establishment, to a party of mass appeal
-founded on principles of One Nation Conservatism, the group focused on gaining grassroots support, particularly attracting the women who would be raising the generation of (Conservative?) voters

What is social class?

=term firts used in the C.19th to catagorise people by social status and economic influence
=a pervasive issue, impacting every aspect of life

What was social mobility like during this period?

Limited, but increasing as lines between classes became blurred
-eg.wealthy middle classes would marry into the aristocracy, would gain status and dowries respectively

Who were the upper classes?

Roughly 2 sections…
-aristocracy and landowning gentry=~4290 people, anual income over£5000
-wealthy industrialists=~25k, anual income£1000-£5000
=0.3%total income earners, but held 23.4%total income

Who were the middle classes?

-worked for a living, with their minds eg.merchants, manufacturers, clerks, smallholders+tenant farmers
-income ranged £100-£1000, held 64.1%total income

Who were the working classes?

=gen.those who worked with their hands, eg.craftsmen, miners, factory operatives, agricultural workers
-79.1%income earners, but only 35.9 share of the total income

How did the upper classes generate wealth? What did this mean for them?

=reliant on inherited wealth that was generated through the land they possessed, most substantially through rent which maintained the econ.superiority of the upper classes, allowing them to control a continually land-based political system
->eg.dom.HoL, had immense influence over the social, econ., political life of the country through eg.dictating who worked on their land

What was the impact of industrialisation on the upper classes?

-diminished political/economic prevalence
-BUT, provided additional opportunities for wealth, could capitalise on mineral deposits found on land

What is the difference between the aristocracy and the gentry?

-aristocracy =smaller (~800 vs ~3000 people)
-land, aristocracy had more, also owned/rented in London on top of country estate
-servants, over 50 vs min.6
-title, aristocracy=duke, earl, marquess, many on HoL…gentry=possible minor title, many sita in HoC
-was tension between them over eg.resent ment of the aristocracy's dominance of the national stage

How were wealthy industrialists trying to assimilate into the upper classes?

-industrialist, merchants, manufacturers had been able to accumulate wealth on an unprecedented scale due to industrialisation
=could challenge econ.superiority of the upper classes, imitate lifestyles+culture by eg.buying large country estates
-marriages between (often American)upper middle class and gentry/aristocracy further blurred class lines

What was the economic and social influence of the middle classes?

-many key politicians, eg.Gladstone, Peel had middle class backgrounds, but the political progress of mc=gen.more gradual
-considered themselves to be the diving force behind Britain's industrial success=well placed for social and political dominance
->many aimed to rise through the social structure, looking down on the poor-lack of hard work and thrift
-were a new market demographic, had books+magazines about fashion, lifestyle, household management aimed at them
-attempts to distance selves from working classes=development of suburbs

Why is middle class a broad term?

-1850s~1/5-1/4 pop.=mc
=spectrum of incomes and occupations was broad
->min.requirement=£100, 1 servant, but some eg.lawyers were earning £700, living in large detached houses with 4 servants, children at public schools

How were the middle classes growing?

-numbers and wealth grew 1851-71 (strong econ., exports) as social influence grew
-ability to limit family sizes also enabled social mobility
-no.domestic servants also increased, 1871=1.4mil, can give a rough guide to the growing number of middle class households

Why was there a lack of homogeneity within the working classes?

~80% earned a living through manual labour=working classes
=differences in experience, occupation, across regions
->rural areas=mostly poorly paid agricultural labourers
->urban areas=greater diversity in occupations, status, habits, wages-eg.skilled workers/craftsmen considered themselves to be superior to unskilled labourers
->workplace hierarchies also existed, eg.ship-workers looked down on land workers, permanent labourers looked down on casuals at the Thames docks

How could the corking classes be distinguished from the poor?

Middle class socialists generally saw the poor as being those who couldn't habitually maintain themselves with the work that they did
-we saw them selves as distinct from the poor, were self confident as late C.19th saw an increase in real wages, decrease in %pop.on poor relief

How did regional divides impact the landed classes?

In all regions, landed classes=not constrained by regional divides
-wealth=could lead comfortable lives regardless, often had a town house in London to return to when Parl./society required

What was England's position within Britain?

=dominant social, econ., political centre of the country throughout the C.19th
-remained strong in its national identity as others had to work to maintain their's

What was the North/South divide?

=sig.cultural, economic divide between the north and south of England
-North=industrial due to coal and Iron deposits
-South=largely agricultural due to lack of natural resources, gen.more prosperous with counties around London and those with industrial towns experiencing the econ.boom to the greatest extent

What was population redistribution like during this period?

-some counties in England and Wales experienced sig.pop.decrease, esp.those remote from industrial towns, eg.Shropshire, West Moorland as people moved for work, better wages in industrial jobs
->=exasterbated by stagnant local economies, agricultural depression, developments in the rail way network
->>decrease in the number of farm workers=a positive for those still in the industry as wages became more competitive with industry ones (though agricultural wages were already higher in the north)
-weak economy, 1840s famine, harsh landlords etc.=many in Ireland left, moved to eg.USA, port cities in England (=Irish diaspora)

What was the state of national identity in Wales?

-had been ruled by England since C.13th, became part of the union 1536-'43
=a single national identity was able to emerge more so than in Sc./Ire.(language barriers, economic and religious differences)
->religion also provided a source of national identity, by 1851=strongly non conformist, 3/4pop church goers (all services conducted in Welsh)

What were the economic differences in Wales?

N/S divide was emphasised as coal fields in Glamorganshire allowed for greater industrialisation in the South

What were the key divides in Ireland?

-Ulster=only area with industrial dev.eg.Belfast was renowned for textiles, engineering, shipbuilding=high pop.and wages
-rest of the country=poor, rural economy too weak to stim.demand
->divide=emphasised by eg.religious differences, landlords

What was the relationship between Ireland and England like?

-Act of Union with En.=1800
-harsh English landlords, lack of consideration in Parl., pressures on Gaelic speakers, etc.

What was the state of industrialisation in Scotland?

-Lowlands=more industrialised, 1880=Glasgow and Edinburgh=%th ans £rd wealthiest city in the country
=Central and South Scotland=more prosperous
->eg.Glasgow and surrounding areas were maj.in shipbuilding, textiles, engineering, had a prosperous mc

How did life compare in the Highlands?

-railway networks failed to connect the highlands to the rest of Br.=not industrialised, Gaelic speaking crofting families left behind in the golden age of farming
->most led a hand to mouth existence, unaware of new techniques, machinery, financially unable to make improvements

What was the crofter's war?

=civil disobedience that occurred amongst Croft farmers in Scotland in 1882
-came as a result of disproportionately high rents during the 1870s, agricultural depression
-underlined econ.imbalance between the north of Scotland and the south (where farmers earned higher wages than any others in Britain, long leases encouraged investment in improvements=profits+wages

What was the state of languages in Britain?

-Wales, Scotland, Ireland = preservation of national identity through language, old traditions=v.important
BUT languages were all under threat by 1870s under the justification that speaking English would prepare agricultural workers for urban life
-eg.1872 Education Act attempted to anglicise the Gaelic speaking population
->although school attendance in rural areas=low, steady urban migration=Gealic became virtually obsolete in Scotland

Did the upper classes experience an improved standard of living?

-didn't generally improve but didn't get worse either…
-enjoyed cont.prosperity, was still an identifiable gulf between them and the working classes:
->lived in stately homes, enjoyed a lavish life of luxury that centred to on work but on leisure, eg.spring=the season, summer=holidays abroad/by the sea, autumn=shooting, winter=hunting
->had many servants, inherited and developed wealth, left free to travel, explore new hobbies
->no.people in service increased 750k-1.2mil '51-'71, expenditure increased at a greater rate than prices

How did living standards improve for the middle classes?

-success in overseas developments/investments brought capital back to Br.
->as those who participated in these business ventures, controlled trade and industry middle class manufacturers and merchants benefitted most from this=formed the growing+prosperous middle classes
->were able to build substantial houses in the outskirts of industrial cities eg.Edgebaston in Birmingham
->could afford the best furniture, domestic servants, carriage and horses
->could limit family size through birth control=sent children to private schools, could afford best medicine
Although only a percentage of the middle classes experienced all the above benefits to the economic boom, sim.econ.prosperity permeated through maj.respectable Vic.soc. (Seen as a reward for hard work and thrift)
=most were now able to eg.take excursions to growing spa towns

How did living standards improve for the working classes?

-though wages fluctuated, were more dependent on the economic state, average industrial workers' wages rose 50% 1850-75, while prices only rose by ~20% giving a ~30%increase in real wages
=increased spending power, life for many in cities became less harsh, suggestive of greater prosperity
->simple commodities eg.soap, matches were more affordable and easily available
->factories produced cheaper goods targeted at working classes families with more disposable income
->train network improvements allowed fresh food to be brought into the cities, combined with gen.cheaper food = fresh+plentiful supply of dairy, meat, veg = more varied, healthier diets
->social legislation intro.eg.1850 Factory Act=half days on Saturday, textiles working hours cut, while bank holidays were introduced=more leisure time, family trips to the seaside, countryside became more popular and feesable due to trains

How did living standards not improve for the working classes?

-regional differences were sig., eg.rural wages were much lower, at the mercy of you the Agricultural depression (1878-86), only 20shillings/week at best=could only be classed as poor
-many in industrial cities also didn't reap benefits-couldn't afford food let alone other commodities, suffered from a loss of wages after working day reforms, etc.

What was the state of child labour?

->common both in industry and agriculture
->work was mostly dangerous, eg.extreme heat in potteries, inhaling soot up mines
=caused serious long term health damage
->kept adult wages down as the demand for labour was being filled
->also kept children out of school as many families needed this extra income to survive.
However, gov.efforts to improve the situation were emerging, eg.Sandson's Education Act (1876) required children over 10 to hold proof of education before working, Factory Act (1867) restricted children's working hours

What was poor law?

=a system that raised money through rates to support those who couldn't support themselves, after 1834 responsibility for collecting the money shifted from parish councils to 600 poor law unions
->applying for poor relief was a last resort, meant accepting placement at a workhouse, giving up power to support family

What was the workhouse?

In England and Wales, a workhouse was a total institution where those unable to support themselves were offered accommodation and employment in exchange for working on menial tasks in deliberately harsh conditions
->designed to deter people from seeking workhouse support
->families were separated onto separate wards, had to wear uniforms, give up personal items (some education was given to children)
->during the economic depression, insufficient places were available=out door relief (at own homes) issued

What other option existed to help the poor?

Virtually none.
-Laissez faire policy only extenuated situations of poverty, was no state support for the old/ill/unemployed
->freindly societies/charities+unions = only thing between the poor and being forced to seek relief/the workhouse

What were the dangerous working conditions many of the working clases faced?

-mine owners=unwilling to invest in modern machinery=mining was an especially dangerous profession
->1860-'97=24k men died in mining accidents
->eg.in Hartley colliery in Northumberland, 204 men died when a pumping engine beam fell down the single shaft.
-matchmaking factories=phosphorous fumes would eat away at the teeth and jawbones of workers (often young girls)
-long hours in the cold and wet=agricultural workers often suffered ill health, eg.bronchitis

What was the impact of these dangerous working conditions?

-employees often faced danger at work
-caused il health/injuries=contributed to the continuing poverty of the working classes as medical treatment was expensive, days off=no pay
-poverty forced people to continue working in poor conditions
=health and productivity further decreased

What were the consequences of low wages?

=v.low for unskilled/semi-skilled workers
=even with adults and children working, many working class families still couldn't afford food and rent
=would go without food, diets were basic (mostly potatoes and bread), living conditions were poor, no money remained for medical treatment=low infant mortality rates
=no money left for education, so many were stuck in this cycle of poverty with no escape

How did people try to supplement low wages?

-some could be mitigated by charities in either middle classes or working class communities
-legal way of supplementing income = running an allotment, street selling
-illegal = poaching, petty crime, prostitution (some could even earn £2/week, =2xas much as coal miners)

What were slums?

Poor, run-down urban neighborhoods, damp, dilapidated housing with communal privies, cramped courtyards, unclean water supplies
-some working class families proffered the 'freedom' of the slums to the newer housing developments with their middle class morals

What was the state of living conditions for the working classes?

Gen.=terrible…
->overcrowding, poor sanitation, poorly built back to back housing, scrupulously constructed, buildings in states of disrepair
=eg.outbreaks of devastating disease such as cholera
-few workers had houses with solid roof, walls, floors which kept out the weather
-families were often cramped into a single room, 5%of families in Wales also had a lodger
=poor didn't benefit from the luxury of more affordable furniture, increasingly common gaslights.
Non-compulsory legislation=conditions only continued as they were in most places

Why was rent so expensive?

-limited supply of housing+growing urban pop.=high demand
-gov.attempts to improve housing=slums became scarcer, but new housing was too expensive for the poorest
=workers spent around 1/4-1/2 of wages on rent, areas with affordable housing were the exception, not the rule

How did the Liberal principle of self-help make it more difficult for social reform to be addressed?

-Self help placed the emphasis on the individuales, ie.people should take responsibility for their own lives and actions, constantly work hard themselves to improve/achive their aim
->key virtues for success incl.duty, thrift, strength of character.
-was a v.prominant view in (mc) Vic.soc.=many looked down on the poor as being feckless, lazy, careless, not as victims of circumstance in need of government assistance
=many felt that the best way to address social issues was through minimal state interference (eg.passing reforms) and reliance on voluntary middle class philanthropy, +forcing people to help themselves, make their own change
=a very naive approach, clearly unaware of actual issues

How did the extension of the franchise in 1867 and 1884 make political parties more open to the prospect of social reform?

-needed to stay politically relevant through ensuring the support+votes of the newly enfranchised working classes - promising social reform to improve standards of living was a key and simple way of doing so.
-the voices of those who desired/needed these reform were being heard in parliament for the first time=issue was harder to ignore

What were Model (craft) Unions? How did they operate?

=small unions operating amongst the skilled workers enfranchised in 1867
-sought to improve working conditions through self-help, self-improvement, self-education, reasoned negotiation with employers
->peaceful bargaining methods helped to win the respect of eg.Gladstone, hoped such support of the Liberal party and values would in turn lead to Liberal gov.strengthening their legal position through eg.protection of funds.
-all members also had to pay a relatively high sub.fee
=excluded unskilled workers and allowed them to act as friendly societies

How did Model (craft) Unions improve the prospect of social reforms?

=an early demonstration of advocating for workers' rights and the respect of new labour laws, winning some power in the political landscape through collective Liberal support
BUT, focus on self help, general elitism=unlikely to secure any of the drastic social reforms needed by working classes