Biomedical Ethics Exam 1 Study Guide

What is the principle of charity?

be charitable towards the arguments of others even when you disagree with the conclusions

What is the ad hominem fallacy?

tear down the person instead of the argument

What is the strawman fallacy?

deliberately misrepresenting someone's position so it will be easier to refute

What is cultural relativism?

the idea that morality is relative to the culture, cultures are different from each other and we cannot judge based on our own standards of right and wrong

What is the cultural differences argument for relativism? (state it in premise-conclusion form)

Premise: Different societies have different moral codes

Conclusion: There is no objective truth or morality

Why does Rachels think that the cultural differences argument is a bad argument?

Because the conclusion does not follow the premise, therefore it is invalid and fails. (1 or more cultures could be WRONG).

The premise is also misleading. (comes down to empirical beliefs rather than values)

According to Rachels, what are some of the negative implications of cultural relativism?

cannot learn from other cultures and cannot criticize other cultures.

no such thing as moral progress (no change for the better).

Is relativism just tolerance? If so, why? If not, how do they differ?

No, tolerance implies judgment of other cultures.

Relativism cannot tolerate because they cannot judge outside their culture.

How does tolerance contradict cultural relativism?

tolerance does not require us to say all practices are equally good

Does Kant think the average person has a pretty good intuitive sense of morality?

Yes, he thinks we experience it by obligations (common sense morality)

~moral law is w/out exception and is universal

What is the only unqualified good according to Kant (and why is it the only unqualified good)?

Good will

~it intends to do its duty, does not have ulterior motives and doing it for the right reasons

What is the difference between acting for sake of duty and acting merely in accord with duty?

Merely in accord with duty is objective (are you doing the right thing) vs the sake of duty is subjective (why are you doing the right thing).

What is a hypothetical imperative?

Always deal with means-end reasoning, goals

ex: you can defeat your goal by letting them go, it is okay to let it go, but if you continue doing something the same way and expect to reach your goal.. that is irrational

What is a categorical imperative?

No matter what you pursue, your willing has to match it

The second formulation of the categorical imperative is the Formula of Humanity, or the end-it-itself formula. State it:

“act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your self or anyone else, always as an end-in-itself, NEVER merely as a means”

Explain why certain immoral actions fail the the Formula of Humanity:

people can treat someone as a mean to reach their goal

When Kant refers to humanity, what is he focused on as its essence? What is it to treat a human as a mere means? How does one respect and treat humanity as an end-in-itself?

~He is focused on humans being ends in themselves, humans act on reasons and hence why humanity has dignity

~You use someone as a mere means when you disrespect their humanity

~You respect and treat humanity as an end-in-itself when you make it worth THEIR time

What is it to be autonomous or to will autonomously?

self rule giving, being able to determine oneself according to reasons

Why can’t you lie to the murderer at your according to Kant?

It inflicts on autonomy

(by withholding information you aren’t giving all the info to make an informed decision)

How may categorical imperatives are there?

ONE

What are the two types of consequentialism that we mentioned in class?

utilitarianism and egoism

How is egoism different from Utilitarianism? How are they similar?

Egoism is to maximize good consequences and pleasure without pain for YOURSELF, but utilitarianism maximizes those for EVERYONE

What is the biggest difference between Utilitarianism and Kantian moral theory?

Kant: consequences do not matter

Utilitarian’s: consequences are the only things that matter

What consequences does Utilitarianism focus on?

which consequences can you LIVE with

How do utilitarians define happiness?

Pleasure

To what does the term “utility” refer?

happiness = pleasure = utility

What does it mean for a theory to be hedonistic? (is utilitarianism hedonistic?)

Pleasure and the absence of pain are the consequences that matter

~hedonism is 1/3 of the utilitarianism combo

What does it mean for a theory to be impartialist? (is utilitarianism impartialist?)

Everyone’s pleasure and pain are considered the same

~impartialism is 1/3 of the utilitarianism combo

How does a consequentialist determine the right action? A utilitarian?

A consequentialist determines the right action by maximizing the good consequences.

Utilitarianist or Utilitarian?

utilitarian

What is the principle of utility (be able to state it)?

“of all the actions (or inactions) available to you, choose the action (or inaction) that will maximize pleasure and/or minimize pain for everyone that will be affected by your action”

What should a utilitarian do if caught in a situation where she cannot help but cause some pain?

she will do the act for the greater good

What are some objections to utilitarianism concerning the issues of justice?

The justice objection: allows for the overlooking of bodily rights or the right to a fair trial

What are some troubling cases for utilitarian’s to deal with concerning justice/individual rights? (how might utilitarian’s respond to such concerns?)

stealing organs to help save other peoples lives (killing one could save many)

What is Act Utilitarianism?

right act is the one of all the actions available to you that will maximize pleasure and minimize pain

What is Rule Utilitarianism?

Focuses on following a rule (if you followed it would produce the most utility)

How does Rule Utilitarianism represent a potential solution to problems for Utilitarian theory concerning justice and individual rights?

By focusing on a rule GENERALLY, they say that not all of their rules are completely applicable 100% of the time

What does Aristotle think is the final end of human desire? What does it mean for this to be the final end of desire?

Eudaimonia, worthwhile activities done well, being the best person you can be

Why is “happiness” a bad translation of the Greek work “Eudaimonia” in Aristotle’s works?

happiness is a subjectively personal state

What is a good translation of Eudaimonia?

human flourishing

What are the parts of Eudaimonia?

Worthwhile activities done well

~never done improving

~being the best person you can be

How do virtues relate to eudaimonia? How does a virtue contribute to eudaimonia?

~your desire to do something coincides with your need to do something

~virtues help us satisfy our needs and desires harmoniously

How does Aristotle define humans?

animal, social, rational

What is the function of a human according to Aristotle?

“organize their social activity rationally”

What is it to organize social life rationally?

satisfying our needs and desires harmoniously

How do the virtues help to organize social life rationally?

if you become some intemperate that it effects ither people, you become vicious (the pie analogy), which in turn determines how you organize social life rationally

What does it mean to be vicious?

doing the wrong thing because you genuinely believe your right (convincing yourself of such)

What does it mean to be incontinent?

knowing the right thing, but doing the wrong thing

What does it mean to be continent?

person has to will themselves to do the right thing (struggles to do it, is considered admirable by some)

What does it mean to be virtuous?

to have the want and desire to do the right thing and you already unconsciously do it.

For Aristotle is it better to be continent or virtuous? Why?

it is better to be virtuous because they have the right emotional state (it comes naturally)

For Aristotle, why is desire ethically important?

urges us towards knowledge, desire for good

How does Aristotle think you gain or develop virtue?

you develop virtue through experience, it is a skill

Name at least 5 virtues that Aristotle covers in his Nicomachean Ethics and their associated vices of deficiency and excess (including what the vices are a deficiency and excess of):

courage, generosiity, truthfullness, wittiness, friendliness

Give an example of a vice and a vice of deficiency. (what is each an excess and deficiency of?)

courage

cowardness (deficiency)

rash (excess)

What is the difficulty for Aristotle’s ethics that is associated with action guidance? How might an Aristotelian answer this objection?

~his ethics do not guide actions

~objection answer: virtues reinforce each other and there is an independent standard (life experience)

What is the Trolley problem?

a train either hits one person or 5, you can pull the lever or not.

How do the classic and sumo trolley versions differ?

the classic version only involves pulling a lever vs not pulling it, but the sumo version requires a brutal killing vs not doing anything

How would each theory respond to the conventional trolley problem?

Kant: wouldn’t, using person as a mere means

Utilitarianism: pull it to save more

Aristotle: virtuous person could do either & be virtuous (does not take as much vice to carry this act out)

How would each theory respond to the sumo trolley problem?

Kant: wouldn’t, still uses a person as a mere means

Utilitarianism: would kill to save more

Aristotle: would not still be virtuous (what kind of person would actually carry the action out?)