U3 AOS2 (2) - Revision

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33 Terms

1

MEMORY


3 fundamental processes of memory:

  1. encoding: conversion of sensory info into a usable form so that it can be neurologically represented (‘placed’) and stored in memory

  2. storage: retention of the encoded information over time

  3. retrieval: recovery of stored info for use when needed

Information Processing Module ppt download

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2

MEMORY


Without memory learning is…

not possible - learning is stored in memory

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3

ATKINSON-SHIFFRIN MULTI-STORE MODEL OF MEMORY


  1. Outlines:

  2. Each store processes + differs:

  3. 3 stores of memory:

  1. the three seperate stores of memory, which interact through the processes of encoding, storage and retrieval

  2. each store processes info in different ways. They differ in terms of function (purpose / roles), capacity (amount of info it can hold at any given moment) and duration (lenght of time it can hold info)

  3. sensory memory (SM), short-term memory (STM), long-term memory (LTM)

    Figure 2.1 from The multi-store model of memory ( Atkinson and Shi rin ,  1968 ) | Semantic Scholar

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SENSORY MEMORY


  1. Sensory info is assumed to be retained in its…

  2. Capacity:

  3. Duration:

  4. If we do not pay attention to info in SM / no further processing occurs…

  5. Incoming sensory info is said to be stored in…

  6. 2 sensory registers:

  1. raw’ sensory form (rather than an encoded form)

  2. capacity: potentially unlimited

  3. duration: short (0.2-4 seconds)

  4. the info is permanently lost from experience

  5. separate sensory systems (‘sensory registers’)

  6. 2 SENSORY REGISTERS:

    • iconic memory

    • echoic memory

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5

ICONIC MEMORY


  1. Sensory register for:

  2. Visual images are retained in what form?

  3. Duration:

  1. incoming visual info

  2. their ‘raw’ / original sensory form

  3. about 0.3 seconds (just long enough to recognise / process the sensory info)

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ECHOIC MEMORY


  1. Sensory register for:

  2. In echoic memory, sound…

  3. Duration:

  1. incoming auditory info

  2. lingers like an echo

  3. about 3-4 seconds - generally long enough to select what has been heard for further processing / interpretation before the sound disappears completely

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7

SHORT-TERM MEMORY (STM)


  1. Capacity:

  2. Duration:

  3. Info is no longer…

  4. Info enters from SM / is retrieved from LTM to STM after…

  5. STM holds what info?

  6. Info is:

  1. capacity: limited (7±2)

  2. duration: retained for a relatively short time - unless renewed in some way

  3. an exact replica of the sensory stimulus (is an encoded version)

  4. it is payed attention to

  5. all of the info you are consciously aware of at any moment in time

  6. maintained / manipulated

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8

DURATION OF SHORT-TERM MEMORY (STM)


  1. Maintenance rehearsal and continual repetition can keep info in STM…

  2. Without rehearsal duration is:

  3. After 12 seconds:

  4. By about 18 seconds:

  5. Some info (especially ‘muscle memory’ info) can occasionally linger for:

  6. Duration can be increased by:

  1. indefinitely

  2. 18-20 seconds, possibly up to 30 seconds

  3. recall starts to decline

  4. almost all of the info disappears if not renewed in some way

  5. up to 30 seconds

  6. INCREASED BY:

    • maintenance rehearsal: repeating new info over and over again to keep in STM for as long as possible

    • elaborative rehearsal: meaningfully linking new info to info already stored in STM

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CAPACITY OF SHORT-TERM MEMORY (STM)


  1. How many bits of unrehearsed info can be stored?

  2. Is capacity the same for each individual?

  3. Info stored in STM is lost through (2):

  4. Capacity can be increased by:

  1. 7 plus or minus 2

  2. no - some people have smaller or larger STM capacities

  3. LOST THROUGH:

    • decay: not being used / not rehearsed

    • displacement: being pushed out to make room for other important info

  4. INCREASED BY:

    • chunking: grouping smaller, separate bits of info into larger units / ‘chunks’ of info

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10

LONG-TERM MEMORY (LTM)


  1. Capacity:

  2. Duration:

  3. 2 different types of LTM:

  1. capacity: potentially unlimited

  2. duration: possibly permanent

  3. DIFFERENT TYPES:

    • explicit memory

    • implicit memory

Long-Term Memory In Psychology: Types, Capacity & Duration

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EXPLICIT MEMORY


  1. Unconsciously / consciously retrieved and stated?

  2. Also known as:

  3. Involves what kind of knowledge / info?

  4. Attempt to retrieve previously stored info is:

  5. 2 sub-types:

  1. consciously retrieved / stated

  2. declarative memories (because we can declare / state them)

  3. general knowledge / information about personal experiences - needed to retrieve in response to a specific need / request to do so

  4. deliberate / conscious

  5. SUB-TYPES:

    • episodic memory

    • semantic memory

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EPISODIC MEMORY


  1. Definition:

  2. Includes:

  1. episodic memory: the long-term memory of personally experienced events (‘what’) associated with a particular time (‘when’) and place (‘where’)

  2. the self as the initiator or recipient of some action

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AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL MEMORY consists of information stored in:

episodic memory, semantic memory, or a mix of the two

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SEMANTIC MEMORY


  1. Definition:

  2. It includes (6):

  3. It is not ‘tagged’ with:

  4. Is the self important in info?

  1. semantic memory: the long-term memory of facts and knowledge about the world

  2. INCLUDES:

    • facts and knowledge of the kind learned in school

    • everyday facts and general knowledge

    • the meaning of words

    • rules

    • concepts

    • areas of expertise

  3. details of time / place

  4. no

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IMPLICIT MEMORY


  1. Unconsciously / consciously retrieved?

  2. Also known as:

  3. Occurs (effort):

  4. Existence of a specific memory can be:

  5. 2 sub-types:

  1. unconscious

  2. non-declarative memories (‘memories without awareness’)

  3. effortlessly

  4. implied / inferred from responses that can be observed

  5. 2 SUB-TYPES:

    • procedural memory

    • classically conditioned memory

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PROCEDURAL MEMORY


  1. Definition:

  2. Memory of ‘how…

  3. Often little or no:

  4. Hard to:

  1. procedural memory: the long-term memory for the skills involved in particular tasks

  2. ‘how to do something

  3. intentional / conscious attempt to retrieve

  4. hard to put these memories into words

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CLASSICALLY CONDITIONED MEMORIES


  1. Conditioned responses to:

  2. Particularly those involving:

  3. What kind of reflexes are acquired through CC and how will they occur?

  1. conditioned responses to conditioned stimuli acquired through CC

  2. fear / anxiety

  3. simple conditioned reflexes - will occur automatically without conscious awareness in response to a relevant stimulus

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BRAIN AREAS INVOLVED IN LONG-TERM IMPLICIT / EXPLICIT MEMORIES


  1. LTM is not…

  2. 5 brain areas involved:

  3. Areas involved in EXPLICIT memory (3):

  4. Areas involved in IMPLICIT memory (2):

  5. Memories are most likely stored in:

  1. LTM is not stored in one particular area of the brain

  2. 5 BRAIN AREAS:

    • hippocampus

    • amygdala

    • neocortex

    • basal ganglia

    • cerebellum

  3. EXPLICIT:

    • hippocampus

    • amygdala

    • neocortex

  4. IMPLICIT:

    • basal ganglia

    • cerebellum

  5. The areas that initially processed the info

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HIPPOCAMPUS


  1. Role:

  2. Not involved in:

  3. Helps ensure explicit memories are:

  4. What is required to achieve long-lasting explicit memories (+ideal period)?

  5. Does it store memories?

  6. Has a significant role in achieving links between…

  7. Also important for what other kind of memory?

  1. role: formation and encoding of new semantic and episodic memories

  2. the formation of implicit memories

  3. neurologically stable and long-lasting

  4. consolidation: the neurobiological process of making a new formed memory stable and enduring following a learning experience (30 minutes)

  5. no - it transfers them to the neocortex for long-term storage

  6. interrelated bits of memory - by integrating new incoming info with existing info to form networks of memory

  7. spatial memory: explicit memory for the physical location of objects in space - involved with navigation + learning / remembering locations

Hippocampus Damage: How to Improve Memory After Injury

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20

AMYGDALA


  1. Role:

  2. Involved in:

  3. Does not:

  4. Interacts with what other brain area in the processing / retrieval of explicit memories?

  5. When an event is particularly emotional it signals the hippocampus to… (+ how)

  6. What kind of implicit memory is it involved in?

  1. role: processing / regulating emotional reactions (particularly fear / anger)

  2. the formation + consolidation of a wide range of other emotional memories

  3. store memories - but is important for processing / encoding

  4. hippocampus - interacts as the hippocampus processes the event, and the amygdala processes the emotional feeling attached to the event

  5. encode the memory more ‘deeply’ - presence of noradrenaline stimulates amygdala to attach more emotional significance to experience = amygdala signals hippocampus for encoding / storage of relevant emotional details during memory consolidation process

  6. classically conditioned memory - involved due to role in the experience of associated emotion

    Damage to the Amygdala: Functions, Symptoms, & Treatments

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21

NEOCORTEX


  1. Percentage of cerebral cortex:

  2. Roles (range of memory processes):

  3. LTM stores tend to:

  4. semantic / episodic memories are:

  5. SEMANTIC memories tend to be stored:

  6. EPISODIC memories tend to be stored:

  1. 90% of cerebral cortex

  2. roles: interaction with the hippocampus in the formation, consolidation, storage + retrieval of explicit memories

  3. gradually become independent of the hippocampus, amygdala + other medial temporal lobe structures

  4. widely distributed throughout the neocortex - permanent storage tends to be in areas where the relevant info was first processed

  5. semantic: most likely in the frontal and temporal lobes

  6. episodic: most likely in the right frontal and right temporal lobe (damage to right hemisphere = more likely unable to retrieve explicit memories)

Neocortex | Functions, Anatomical Structure, Facts & Summary

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22

BASAL GANGLIA


  1. Role:

  2. Involved in encoding / storing what kinds of memories?

  3. What process is it involved in?

  4. Via its connection to what other part of the brain, what type of implicit memory does it encode / store?

  5. Connection to amygdala:

  6. Has been associated with:

  1. role: long-term implicit memories involving motor skill - associated with voluntary movements (fluidity of movement)

  2. encoding and storing procedural memories + classically conditioned memories - that are associated with unconscious habits, behaviours, procedures

  3. habituation - stores memory of environmental stimulus and lessens the sensitivity to it

  4. via its connection with the cerebellum, it encodes and stores procedural memories

  5. the amygdala is involved in encoding the emotional component of classically conditioned memories + the basal ganglia is involved in encoding / storing responses learnt through classical conditioning (movement)

  6. associated with: impaired movement of people diagnosed with parkinson’s disease

Basal Ganglia Brain Damage: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment

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CEREBELLUM


  1. Involved in:

  2. Crucial for:

  3. Forms and stores implicit memories of:

  4. Has involvement in what kind of activities?

  1. involved: the encoding and temporary storage of implicit procedural memories

  2. crucial for: motor learning and the experience of voluntary movements (but not long-term storage) - important role in everyday purposeful movement

  3. simple reflexes acquired through classical conditioning

  4. activities requiring a skilled sequence of movements - requiring timing + made with speed / ease / fluency

Cerebellum Brain Damage: Causes, Effects, and Rehabilitation

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ROLE OF EPISODIC AND SEMANTIC MEMORY IN RETRIEVING AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL EVENTS AND IN CONSTRUCTING POSSIBLE IMAGINED FUTURES


  1. The hippocampus is primarily involved in the retrieval of what kind of memory?

  2. The frontal / temporal lobes are involved in the retrieval of what kind of memory?

  3. The retrieval of autobiographical events involves the activation of which brain areas?

  4. Brain areas activated when retrieving autobiographical events are:

  5. Episodic memory allows us to:

  6. Imagined futures do not always…

  1. episodic memories

  2. semantic memories

  3. both the hippocampus and the frontal and temporal lobes - suggesting that autobiographical events involve an overlap of episodic / semantic memory

  4. also activated when constructing possible imagined futures

  5. mental time travel’ - not only mentally travel backward in time to recall past events, but also into the future

  6. do not always become a reality - the ability to do so is important for ‘trying out’ different scenarios which help guide future behaviour

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ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE


  1. Characteristics (2):

  2. Is caused by:

  3. 2 primary lesions associated with alzheimer’s disease:

  4. Damage is associated with what brain area?

  5. Effects of alzheimer’s disease (2):

  1. CHARACTERISTICS:

    • age related - but not normal part of ageing process

    • conclusive diagnosis can only be made post-mortem

  2. caused by: a build up of insoluble proteins within and between neurons - that disrupts their function and ultimately destroys them

  3. 2 PRIMARY LESIONS:

    • amyloid plaques: fragments of the protein beta amyloid - that accumulate into insoluble plaques that inhibit communication between neurons

    • neurofibrillary tangles: accumulation of the protein tau - that forms insoluble tangles within neurons, which then inhibit the transportation of essential substances and eventually kill the neuron entirely

  4. hippocampus

  5. EFFECTS:

    • patients struggle to remember semantic and episodic components of personally experienced events

    • lack the capacity to draw on episodic and semantic memories in order to plan / construct new imagined future scenarios

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PROGRESS OF ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE


  1. Areas that tend to be damaged first:

  2. Progresses to:

  3. Which memories are primarily affected?

  4. Which memories tend to remain intact / less severely affected?

  5. In some cases, the disease starts in:

  1. cortical areas - disrupting STM

  2. deeper parts in the brain (hippocampus / medial temporal lobe) - affecting LTM

  3. explicit (episodic + semantic)

  4. implicit memories

  5. hippocampus

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APHANTASIA


  1. Mental imagery refers to:

  2. A person with aphantasia is unable to:

  3. When creating mental imagery, individuals use…

  4. People with aphantasia have a weaker link between (brain area):

  5. People with aphantasia struggle to (2):

  1. mental imagery: the visual representations and experiences of sensory info without the presence of sensory stimuli

  2. generate mental imagery

  3. sensory info that has been organised in STM and then transferred to LTM to recreate perceptual memories (sensory info can be stored in both semantic / episodic memory)

  4. weaker link between frontal + occipital lobe (visual processing centre)

  5. STRUGGLE TO:

    • retrieve autobiographical events

    • construct possible imagined futures

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MNEMONICS


  1. Can be:

  2. Uses information already stored LTM by:

  3. Makes info:

  4. Mnemonics used by WRITTEN traditions:

  5. Mnemonics used by ORAL traditions:

  1. basic or complicated

  2. forging a link / association between the new info to be remembered and info previously encoded

  3. more elaborate - additional info stored tends to be more richly / deeply encoded + makes it easier to locate / retrieve because it had enhanced organisation in LTM

  4. WRITTEN:

    • acronym

    • acrostic

    • the method of loci

  5. ORAL:

    • sung narratives

    • songlines

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ACRONYMS


  1. Words are:

  2. They aid the:

  3. First letter of each word acts as a:

  1. pronounceable

  2. encoding and storing of memory - they link info to words / sounds we already know

  3. retrieval cue - helping bring the targeted info into STM for use

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ACROSTICS


  1. Difference to acronym:

  2. Acrostics link…

  3. First letter of each word acts as a:

  1. sentence constructed from seperate words - not single pronounceable word

  2. link new info to familiar phrases / sentences we already know - helping encode / store info

  3. retrieval cue - helping bring the targeted info into STM for use

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THE METHOD OF LOCI


  1. Involves visualising items in:

  2. 5 Steps involved:

  1. specific / well-known locations

  2. 5 STEPS:

    • visualise and imagine a familiar route / place

    • select several memorable places (landmarks) on the route or in their chosen place

    • create visual imagery for each item that needs to be remembered

    • link each item to one of the identified memorable landmarks

    • imagine they are walking through the house or along the familiar route and retrieve each item by observing the items at each landmark

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SUNG NARRATIVES


  1. Definition:

  2. Can enhance:

  3. Traditional law describing how sung narratives are communicated (3):

  4. Traditional law ensures that:

  1. sung narratives: stories that share important cultural, ecological, and survival info through the use of singing, harmony and rhythm

  2. TRADITIONAL LAW:

    • what is sung

    • who sings and to whom

    • where and when a sung narrative is communicated

  3. info being passed on is preserved

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SONGLINES


  1. Difference from sung narratives:

  2. They are expressions of:

  3. Larger bits of info incorporating…

  4. Maps of:

  1. bigger info (more generalised, compared to sung narratives smaller info more direct to mob / group)

  2. expression of ecological and spiritual knowledge that provide info for survival

  3. incorporating multiple / smaller facts of knowledge + spread on and throughout country

  4. maps of the land

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