Adolescent Development week 7

Adolescent friendships

Characterised by increased emotional closeness, mutual understanding, and self-disclosure, differentiating them from childhood friendships, which are based on shared activities.

Self-disclosure

A central feature of adolescent friendships that supports emotional regulation and identity development.

Evolving Functions of Friendship

• Companionship

• Validation

• Intimacy

• Autonomy (independence from caregivers)

• Relatedness (forming meaningful social bonds)

The increased importance of peer relationships is reflected in:

• The greater amount of time adolescents spend with friends

• The emotional weight these relationships carry

But they can also increase vulnerability to:

• Peer pressure

• Co-rumination

• Risk-taking behaviours (Rose, 2002; Dishion & Tipsord, 2011)

Female adolescents and Friendship

More likely to form dyadic (one-on-one), emotionally expressive relationships

• Place greater emphasis on closeness and self-disclosure

• may benefit more from the emotional support of close friendships

However, they may also be more vulnerable to co-rumination and internalising problems (e.g., anxiety or depression)

Male adolescents and Friendship

• Often form larger group-based friendships

• Focus more on shared activities and less on emotional intimacy

Homophily

The tendency to form friendships with peers who are similar in attitudes and behaviours, supporting identity exploration and validation.

Emotional and Behavioural Similarities

• Academic motivation

• Risk-taking behaviour

• Emotional expressiveness

can strengthen friendship bonds, provide mutual understanding

 may also increase the likelihood of:

• Negative peer influence

• Deviant behaviour normalisation

Social Context and Peer Networks

Adolescents commonly form connections through shared spaces and repeated exposure, such as:

• Classes

• Sports teams

• Social media platforms

Individual Agency & Parental Influence

• Adolescents gain autonomy in choosing friends

• But… parents still play a role

  • Monitoring social environments

  • Setting values and expectations

• Influence is often indirect

  • Encouraging structured activities

  • Modelling social skills and boundaries

• Final choices often reflect a blend of self-direction and parental shaping

Curated self-presentation

on social media allows adolescents to construct and display selected aspects of identity, influencing interest-based friendships.

Social capital

in digital spaces—measured by popularity metrics like follower count and engagement—can influence friendship choices and self-presentation strategies

Online peer surveillance

and social comparison may drive friendship shifts, affecting adolescents’ sense of belonging and increasing relational anxiety.

Peer influence

The powerful effect that friends and peer groups have on adolescents’ behaviours, attitudes, identity, and emotional development.

Mechanisms of Peer Influence

involves explicit encouragement or coercion.
→ Example: being urged to drink alcohol at a party.

more subtle and often more pervasive.
→ Adolescents may adopt attitudes or behaviours that align with their peer group without any explicit prompting, a process known as normative social influence
→ Examples: mirroring friends’ fashion choices, language, or risk-taking behaviours.

Normative social influence

Occurs when adolescents change their behaviours or beliefs to align with peer norms, often without direct pressure.

Prosocial Peer Influence (Not Always Negative!)

peers may encourage:

• Academic engagement

• Seeking emotional support

• Participation in structured activities

susceptibility to peer influence depends on:

• Self-esteem

• Family relationships

• Neural sensitivity to social feedback

Risky decision-making

brain developmental imbalance makes adolescents more likely to:

• Seek immediate rewards

• Take more risks when peers are present, even without direct pressure

The mere presence of peers can activate reward-related brain regions, increasing:

• Risk salience

• Impulsivity

• Reduction in inhibition

Sociometric popularity

Being well-liked by peers, linked to prosocial traits such as friendliness, empathy, and cooperation.

Perceived popularity

Being seen as socially influential or dominant, associated with visibility and dominance, may involve both prosocial and antisocial behaviours.

Unpopularity

Includes peer rejection, neglect, and victimisation, linked to poor socioemotional outcomes such as loneliness, depression, and academic disengagement.

Rejected adolescents (actively disliked):

at risk for loneliness, depression, academic disengagement, and behavioural issues.

Neglected adolescents (socially overlooked):

may experience social withdrawal or low self-esteem due to limited peer connections

Social skills

Interpersonal behaviours, such as empathy and conflict resolution, that help adolescents build friendships and gain peer acceptance.

Social cognition

The ability to understand others’ thoughts and feelings, which helps adolescents interpret social cues and predict peer reactions.

Social information processing involves:

1. Encoding cues

2. Interpreting intent

3. Selecting goals

4. Generating responses

Social skills and cognition are shaped by:

• Individual traits (e.g., temperament, neurodevelopmental conditions)

• Family interactions and peer feedback

Deficits in Social information processing

• Aggression

• Withdrawal

• Peer rejection

Reputational continuity

is the tendency for peer status and labels (e.g., “popular” or “awkward”) to remain stable across childhood and adolescence due to behavioural patterns and peer expectations.

Environmental transitions

like starting high school can offer opportunities to reshape peer status, depending on adolescents’ social competence and support systems

Bullying

is repeated aggression (physical, verbal, relational, or digital) that exploits power imbalances and targets socially vulnerable peers.

Peer victimisation

leads to significant psychological harm, including anxiety, depression, and social withdrawal, and can disrupt identity and emotional development.

Strategic bullying

may be used by perceived popular adolescents to maintain dominance and control, highlighting the role of group norms and peer hierarchies in reinforcing such behaviours.

Addressing Peer Problems

• Shifting group norms

• Promoting empathy and inclusion

• Creating school climates where aggression is not rewarded with popularity

Peer-led initiatives and bystander intervention programmes are promising approaches to:

• Change peer group dynamics

• Reduce bullying at a systemic level

Friendship quality

Typically improves during emerging adulthood, emphasising trust, loyalty, and reciprocity, mirroring aspects of adult intimate relationships.

Friendships at this stage often resemble adult intimate relationships in their depth and reciprocity. They provide a vital context for:

• Practicing conflict resolution

• Developing emotional regulation

• Offering mutual support

however they require:

• Adaptability

• Intentional effort to maintain connections

Digital friendship selection

Shaped by social capital, where adolescents may choose friends based on perceived popularity or influence online.

Friendship support

Linked to better mental health outcomes, including lower levels of loneliness and depression, and higher self-esteem and life satisfaction.

Life transitions

such as moving away from home, starting work or university, and changing lifestyles can alter friendship networks, requiring effort and adaptability to maintain connections.