PSYC 2700 - Exam #1 (Textbook)

Raising Children

 learning about child-development research can answer the endless questions about raising children

Empathy

refers to a person’s capacity to understand and share the feelings of another person → key part of emotional and moral development

Social Policies

making informed decisions about the wide variety of social-policy questions that impact children

Evolutionary theory

integrates variation, natural selection, and inheritance as fundamental concepts

Nature

• biological environment → genes we receive from our parents

• Influences every aspect of our makeup, such as physical appearance, personality, intellect, and mental health

Nurture

a wide range of environments (both physical & social) that influence our development

Genome

 a person’s complete set of hereditary information

Epigenetics

the study of stable changes within gene expression that are modified by the environment 

Methylation

a biochemical process that can reduce the expression of certain genes and is involved in regulating reactions to stress

Selective attention

when infants pay attention to more objects that move and make sounds than to other objects

Active child

Children’s own actions can contribute to their development

Continuous

idea that changes with age will occur gradually → small increments

Discontinuous

the idea that changes with age will include occasional large shifts, not gradual

Stage theories

propose that development occurs in a progression due to distinct age-related stages

Cognitive development

development of thinking and reasoning

Effortful attention

voluntary control of one’s emotions and thoughts

Neurotransmitters

chemicals involved in communication among brain cells

Sociocultural context

The physical, social, cultural, political, economic, and historical circumstances that can make up a child’s environment

Cumulative risk

the accumulation of disadvantages during the years of development

Resilience in children overcoming the obstacles of poverty

1. Positive personal qualities → high intelligence, easygoing personality 

2. A close relationship with at least one parent 

3. A close relationship with one other adult besides their parents

Scientific method

an approach to testing beliefs that involves choosing a question, formulating a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, and drawing a conclusion

Four basic steps of the scientific method

• Choosing a question to be answered 

• Formulating a hypothesis regarding the question 

• Developing a method for testing the hypothesis 

• Using the results to conclude regarding the hypothesis

Hypotheses

testable predictions about the presence/absence of a phenomenon rather than as the truth

Reliability

 the degree to which independent measurements of a given behavior are consistent

Interrater reliability

the amount of agreement in the observations of different raters who watch the same behavior

Test-retest reliability

the degree of similarity of a participant’s performance on two or more occasions

Internal validity

the degree to which effects observed within experiments can be attributed to the factor that the researcher is testing

External validity

 refers to the ability to generalize research findings beyond the research in question

Replicability

The degree to which studies using the same procedure will yield the same results as the original study

Structured interviews

predetermined questions that are administered to participants, useful for when the goal is to collect self-reports on the same topics

Questionnaires

a method that allows researchers to gather information from a large number of individuals by presenting them with uniform printed questions

Clinical interview

questions are adjusted based on the answers the interviewee provides

Natural observation

examination of behavior in an uncontrolled environment → useful for illuminating everyday social interactions

Structured observation

a method that involves presenting an identical situation to each participant and recording the participant's behavior

Variables

attributes that can vary across individuals and situations, such as age, sex, and popularity

Correlational designs

studies that are intended to indicate how two variables are related to each other

Experimental designs

a group of approaches allowing inferences about causes and effects to be drawn

Random assignment

participants have an equal chance of being assigned to each group within an experiment

Experimental control

the ability for the researcher to determine specific experiences of participants during the course of an experiment 

Experimental group

presented the experience of interest

Control group

people are treated identically, not presented with the experience of interest

Independent variable

the experience that participants in the experiment group receive and that those in the control group don’t receive

Dependent variable

a behavior that is measured to see if it is impacted by exposure to the independent variable

Cross-sectional

a method in which participants of different ages are compared on a given behavior/characteristic over a short period

Longitudinal approach

a method of study where the same participants are studied twice or more over a longer period of time

Microgenetic design

a method of study in which the same participants are studied repeatedly over a short period

Ethical Issues in Child-Development Research

• Maximizing benefits and minimizing harm to children

Respect for dignity of persons and peoples

Both the benefits and burdens of the research should be equally distributed among individuals, families, and communities

Scientific integrity

Research should reflect the values of openness, objectivity, fairness, honesty, and accountability

Epigenesis

emergence of new structures/functions during the course of development

Conception

union of the sperm and egg

Gametes/germ cells

reproductive cells, egg and sperm, containing only half of the genetic material of all the other cells within the body

Meiosis

produces gametes, a form of cell division where the egg and sperm only receive half the chromosome pairs contained in other cells of the body

Zygote

fertilized egg cell

Embryo

the developing organism from 3-8 weeks of prenatal development

Fetus

the developing organism from 9 weeks to birth

Mitosis (1st)

the first cell division, resulting in two identical cells —> 2 divide into 4, then 4 into 8, etc. 

Cell migration (2nd)

movement of newly formed cells away from their point of origin

Cell differentiation (3rd)

Embryonic cells give rise to 200 possible cell types within the human body, distinguishing one cell from another

Apoptosis (4th)

 genetically programmed cell death → “ticking death timer.”

Androgens

a class of hormones that leads to the development of male genitalia → the absence of androgens leads to female genitalia

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)

 The adrenal gland overproduces androgens during fetal development

Glucocorticoids

limit fetal growth and help fetal tissues mature, the fetus will increase production of these hormones to start the maturation of key organs that are needed for life outside the womb

Inner cell mass

after the 4th day of conception, the cells arrange themselves into a hollow sphere with a bulge of cells

Identical (monozygotic) twins

twins that result from the splitting of the zygote → result in each of the two zygotes having an identical set of genes

Fraternal (dizygotic) twins

twins that result when two eggs are released into the fallopian tube at the same time and are fertilized by two different sperm

Ectopic pregnancies

pregnancies where the fertilized egg will implant and grow in an organ outside of the uterus (mostly in the fallopian tube) → prevents normal growth of the fetus and puts the parent at risk of life-threatening injury

Neural tube

groove that is formed in the top layer of differentiated cells within the embryo → eventually becomes the brain and the spinal cord

Amniotic sac

a transparent, fluid-filled membrane → surrounds and protects the fetus

Placenta

a support organ for the fetus, keeping the circulatory systems of the fetus and the parent separate

Umbilical cord

a tube containing blood vessels connecting the fetus & placenta

Cephalocaudal development

a pattern of growth where the areas near the head develop earlier than areas further from the head

4 weeks

• the embryo is curved slightly, the head and tail-like structure are almost touching 

  • A heart is visible, already beating and circulating blood, and an arm and a leg are also present

5 ½ weeks

• the nose, mouth, and palate become distinct structures 

  • 3 weeks later, the nose and mouth are fully formed

Movement

•  5-6 weeks after conception, the fetus moves spontaneously

  • Burping, hiccups, and swallowing

Breathing

small amounts of amniotic fluid are pulled into the lungs and then expelled

Touch

 fetuses have been observed to grasp their umbilical cords, rub their faces, and suck their thumbs

Sight

The visual experience of the fetus is minimal, but fetuses can process visual information by the third trimester of pregnancy 

Fetuses preferred light displays that are top-heavy

Taste

fetuses are sensitive to flavors and have stronger preferences to sweeter flavors

Smell

 can be transmitted through liquids, and the fluid comes into contact with the fetus’ odor recptors

Phylogenetic continuity

 humans share many characteristics, behaviors, and developmental processes with nonhuman animals due to our common evolutionary history

Hearing

• fetuses are surrounded by parent’s heartbeat, bloodflow, and breathing 

  • Auditory experiences are well-suited for early brain development

Habituation

a simple form of learning that involves a decrease in response to repeated/continued stimulation

Dishabituation

introducing a new stimulus will rekindle interest following habituation of a repeated stimulus

Miscarriage

also known as spontaneous abortion, occurs before the pregnant parent is even aware of the pregnancy

Recurrent miscarriages

the loss of three of more miscarriages

Teratogens

an external agent that can cause damage/harm during prenatal development

Sensitive period

period during which a developing organism is most sensitive to teratogens

Dose-response relation

the greater the fetuses’ exposure to a potential teratogen, the more likely it is that the fetus will suffer damage

Fetal programming

belated emergence of effects of prenatal development, which can determine physiology in adulthood

Sleeper effects

the impact of a given agent that may not be obvious for years down the line

Alcohol

 leading cause of fetal brain injury → alcohol crosses their blood into both the fetus’s blood stream, creating an amniotic-fluid cocktail

Sudden infant death syndrome

unexpected death of an infant younger than 1 year with no identifiable cause

Opioids

mimics effects of neurotransmitters and can cause problems for the developing brain

Anti-depressants

raises concerns for challenging issues for people contemplating becoming pregnant, as health risks are unknown

Marijuana

inconclusive, as many marijuana users also use alcohol and/or cigarettes

Cigarette smoking

causes both the pregnant spoker and fetus to get less oxygen, slowed fetal growth and low birth weight, which can contribute to an increased risk of miscarriage

Fetal alcohol syndrome

harmful implications of alcohol consumption on a developing fetus → characteristic features, developmental disorders, etc.

Environmental pollutants

bodies and bloodstreams of most Americans contain a mix of toxic metals, synthetic hormones, plastics, etc.