1.8: Scientific Realism vs. Constructive Empiricism, Pragmatism & Naturalism

Lakatos and Science

Science remains our main source of knowledge, but beliefs cannot be fully justified.

Alternative Facts

Claims like “alternative facts” resemble Feyerabend’s view that many traditions count as knowledge; rejected by Lakatos and most scientists.

Knowledge

Knowledge = justified and true belief.

Skeptics

View justification as impossible (e.g., Socrates, Montaigne).

Relativists

View facts as constructed (e.g., Kuhn, Feyerabend, Conway).

Scientific Realism

Being a realist about X means accepting X exists; if a successful theory says X exists, then X exists.

Scientific Realism Example

Electrons or mental states exist; realism is anti-constructivist.

Constructive Empiricism (Van Fraassen)

Science aims for empirical adequacy, not truth about unobservables; multiple theories can explain the same data.

Observation Domains I

Directly observable (e.g., behavior).

Observation Domains II

Detected with instruments (e.g., MRI scans).

Observation Domains III

Not yet detected (e.g., undiscovered particles).

Observation Domains IV

Cannot be detected (e.g., souls).

Problem for Psychology

Anti-realism limits psychology to observable behavior, not the psyche.

Defense of Realism (Dooremalen)

Accepting realism allows psychologists to study inner life.

Scientific Realists Accept

Theories describe unobservable reality; theories are approximately true; scientific progress is possible.

Inference to the Only Explanation (IOE)

The realist infers theory truth from its success, a strong form of IBE.

Detective Case Example

A footprint’s best explanation: a human walked there; analogous to scientific theory success.

“No Miracles” Argument (Putnam)

If realism were false, science’s success would be a miracle; realism explains success without coincidence.

Counterargument - Empirical Adequacy

Theories only need to predict observables; real scientists also aim to explain.

Counterargument - Best of a Bad Lot

We may choose the best among poor theories; realism allows fallible improvement.

Pragmatism (Peirce)

Knowledge is sought to act effectively; belief = what one is prepared to act upon.

Paper Doubt

Theoretical doubt, as in Descartes’ evil demon.

Living Doubt

Real uncertainty that blocks action (e.g., therapist unsure of diagnosis).

Methods of Fixating Beliefs

Tenacity → avoid doubt; Authority → trust leaders; A priori → accept self-evident truths; Science → test by experience.

Pragmatic Maxim

The meaning of a concept = its practical effects; e.g., belief in gravity = expecting objects to fall.

Pragmatism Conclusion

Knowledge is provisional and guides action successfully.

Naturalism (Quine)

Humans are natural beings; philosophy must align with science; no strict line separates science and philosophy.

Quine’s Argument

Cannot justify science outside science; we must study how humans form beliefs.

Naturalized Epistemology (Feldman)

Epistemology replaced by psychological study of reasoning; becomes part of science.

Historical Parallels

Bacon: human biases (“idols of the tribe”); Hume: causality is psychological, not logical.

Conclusion

Science provides good reasons, not certainty; knowledge is tentative; beliefs abandoned only when better reasons appear.

Central Scientific Question

“Could I be wrong?” → Psychologists must check for reasoning errors and remain self-critical.

Societal Effects of Overconfidence

Financial crises (blinds investors) and Conspiracy theories (superstition, pseudo-science)