Biology

hazlewood SBI4U

Hydroxyl

• Found in all macromolecules

• Hydroxide

• Polar

Carboxyl

• Polar

• Carbon double bonded to an Oxygen and single bonded to a Hydroxide

• Acidic

• Found in: proteins, lipids

Amine (functional group)

• Polar

• Basic

• Found in: proteins, nucleic acids

Carbonyl

• Polar

• Carbon double bonded to an Oxygen

• Found in: carbohydrates, nucleic acid

Sulfhydryl

• Slightly polar

• Sulfur single bonded to a Hydrogen

• Found in: proteins

Phosphate

• Polar

• Negative charge

• Found in: nucleic acid, phospholipid

Photosynthesis

6CO2 + 6H2O —> C6H12O6 + 6O2

Cellular respiration

C6H12O6 + 6O2 —> 6CO2 + 6H2O + 38ATP

• electrochemical gradients are used to generate ATP

• C6H12O6: source of energy

• 6 CO2: krebs cycle

• 6 H2O: electron transport chain

• 38 ATP: oxidative phosphorylation

Hydrolysis (Carbohydrate)

• Gaining water to form molecule

• Enzymes are involved as a catalyst

• Requires at least 1 of the following: hydroxyl, carboxyl

Protein

• Most diverse macromolecule

• Made by DNA

• Very diverse

• The function is exclusive to it’s shape

  • Examples:

    • Enzymes

    • Antigens / Antibodies

    • Cell repairing

    • Keratin (hair / nails)

• Found in:

  • Muscles

  • Blood

  • Bones

  • Cells

  • Endocrine gland

Making a protein

• Involves DNA, RNA and ribosomes

• Chains of amino acid that are folded into shape

Monomers

Single pieces

Main types: sugars, amino acids, fatty acids, nucleotides

Primary protein structure

Amino acid determines what the protein is / does

Secondary protein structure

• Folding dipeptide or polypeptide into pleated sheet or twisting into helix

• H bonds are responsible for the disfiguration of proteins

Tertiary protein structure

• R groups interact

• Di / Poly peptides become proteins

• May contain Disulfide bridges if the R group has a sulfhydryl functional group

Quaternary protein structure

• Clustering to form super proteins

• Only occurs to bigger proteins

Polypeptide

• Composed of more than 2 amino acids bonded together

• Peptide bonds

Denaturing

• Reformation (permanent or temporary) of proteins

• Requires heat or chemicals (acids)

Amino acid molecule

Composed of a centre carbon, an Amine group on one side, Carboxyl group on the opposite side, single bonded hydrogen and amino acid opposite of the hydrogen

• Protein monomer

• Polarity depends on the R group

Carbohydrates

• Sugars

• CH2O (1:2:1)

• Source of energy (energy fuel for the body)

• Structural support (Cellulose)

• Found in:

  • Liver

  • Muscles

  • Blood (glucose)

  • Brain

Monosaccharides

• Monomer of sugars

• Distinguished by:

  • Carbonyl group

    • Aldehyde

    • Ketone

  • Number of carbons

• Goes from chain form to ring formation

Aldehyde

• Group of monosaccharide

• Carbonyl group

• Includes: glucose, galactose

Ketone

• Group of monosaccharide

• Carbonyl group

• Includes: fructose

Polysaccharides

• Complex carbohydrates

• Composed of a large amount of monosaccharides

• Storing energy

• Structural support

• Examples:

  • Cellulose

  • Amylopectin

  • Amylose (starch)

Lactose

• β glucose + β galactose

Maltose

• α glucose + α glucose

• Found in maltesers, wheat, grains

• Used for energy

Sucrose

• α glucose + fructose

• Found in honey, fruits

• Table sugar (cannot be tested for)

Cellobiose

• β glucose + β glucose

• Found in plant cell walls

Enzyme

• Catalyst

• Protein

• Helps break down macromolecules

• Active site

Lipids

• Energy storing

• Building membranes / organelles

• Mostly non-polar

• Contains Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen

• Consists of: fats, phospholipids, sterol and waxes

Triglyceride

• Type of fat

• Aka triacylglycerol

• Consists of a glycerol bonded to 3 fatty acids

Fat

• Most common lipid

• Stores more than 2x the energy that proteins & carbohydrates can store

• Consists of triglycerides

• Saturated & Unsaturated

Dipeptide

• Composed of 2 amino acids bonded together

• Peptide bonds

Peptide bond

• Bond between amino acids

• Requires dehydration reaction

Ester bond

• Found in triglycerides

• Bond between glycerol and fatty acid

• Requires a Dehydration reaction in order to form

Triglyceride notation

C[number of carbons] : [number of double bonds], ω-[carbon w the double bond]

α Glucose

• DDUD

• Starch

• Found in potatoes, wheat

β Glucose

• UDUD

• Cellulose

• Main component of Cellobiose

• Found in fruits, plants

Dehydration reaction (Carbohydrates)

• C 1-6 linkage (for maltose)

• Enzymes are involved as a catalyst

• Water is formed

α Galactose

• DDUU

β Galactose

• UDUU

• Component for lactose

Hydrolysis (Protein)

• Addition of water to amino acid

• Enzymes are involved as a catalyst

• The product is 2 amino acids

Dehydration (Protein)

• Losing water

• Enzymes are involved as a catalyst

• Carbon from carboxyl bonds to Nitrogen from Amine group

  • Carbon gains a double bond to Oxygen (Carbonyl)

  • Nitrogen gains a single bond to Hydrogen

Cellulose

• Large amounts of β Glucose

• H bonds aid in the sturdy structure

• AKA fibre

• Only found in plants

• Composed of Cellobioses

Glycogen

• Hydrolization of Amylose and Amylopectin

• Short term energy storage

  • Turned into Fat after 4 hours

• Found in muscles and liver

• Only found in animals

Amylose

• Polysaccharide

  • Many α Glucoses in a chain

• Starch

Amylopectin

• Polysaccharide

• Less soluble than Amylose

• C1-6 glycosidic linkage

Benedict’s test

• Test to identify monosaccharides

• Solution turns red if positive

Lugol’s test

• Test to identify polysaccharides

• Solution turns purple-black if positive

Biuret test

• Test to identify proteins

• Solution turns purple if positive

Sudan red test

• Test to identify lipids

• Solution turns red if positive

Fatty acid

• Monomer for fats

• Usually bonded to an alcohol (glycerol)

Glycerol

• Alcohol

• Bonds with fatty acids

• Composed of 3 hydroxyl groups

Oligosaccharides

• 2-3 monosaccharides

  • 2 monosaccharides can be disaccharides

• Attached by Glycosidic linkages

Unsaturated Fat

• Presence of double bonds

• Trans bonds

• Cis bonds

Chitin

• Similar to a polysaccharide

• Is not a polysaccharide due to the presence of a Nitrogen

  • Violates carbohydrate convention - composed of only C,H,O

Saturated fat

• AKA: Stearic acid

• No double bonds

• Found in: Butter

Trans bonds

• Bad

• AKA: Trans-linoleic acid

• Hydrogens are on opposite sides

• Found in: margarine

Cis bonds

• Better than Trans bonds

• AKA: Linoleic acid

• Hydrogens are on the same side

• Found in: oil

Phospholipid

• Similar to fats

• 2 fatty acid chains

• Final glycerol is bonded to a phosphate group

• Hydrophilic & hydrophobic ends

  • Fatty acid chains are hydrophobic (Non-polar)

  • Phosphate group is hydrophilic (Polar / charged)

• Contains bilayering

Sterols

• AKA: steroids

• Hydrophobic molecules

• Made up of hydrocarbon rings

• Used for:

  • Hormones

  • Structural purposes

• Examples:

  • Cholesterol

  • Testosterone

Waxes

• Long carbon chained molecules

• Solid at room temperature

• Used to prevent loss of water & solutes

DNA

• Composed of nucleotide monomers

Nucleotide

• DNA monomer

• Made of:

  • Sugar

  • Phosphate

  • Nitrogenous Base

Nitrogenous Base

• Pyrimidines

  • Cytosine

    • Present in DNA & RNA

  • Thymine

    • Present in DNA

  • Uracil

    • Present in RNA

• Purine

  • Adenine

    • Present in DNA & RNA

  • Guanine

    • Present in DNA & RNA

Eukaryotic Cell

• Contains genetic material

• Has a cell membrane

• Has Cytoplasm

Cytoplasm

• Contains organelles / cytosol

• Mostly composed of water

• Filled with microtubules

• Glycolysis location

Nucleus

• Contains DNA

  • DNA combines with protein to make chromosomes

  • chromatin

• Produces ribosomes

• Chromosomes are only visible in dividing cells

• Has many parts

  • Nucleoplasm

  • Nucleolus

  • Nuclear envelope

    • A double membrane

  • Nuclear pore complexes

    • Holes in the nuclear envelope

Endoplasmic reticulum

• Membrane-bound tubules and sacs

• Makes vesicles

• Rough endoplasmic reticulum

  • Makes proteins

  • Located near nucleus

  • Is rough because of ribosomes attachments

    • ribosomes come from the nucleus

• Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

  • makes lipids (but not triglycerides

  • is far from the nucleus

Cell wall

• Composed of cellulose and glycoprotein

Golgi apparatus

• transportation / storage of materials

• Creates pectin and lysosomes

• Cis face

  • acts as an entrance for vesicles on the inside of cell

  • faces the inside of the cell

  • endocytosis

• Trans face

  • acts as an exit for vesicles after resources are modified

  • side that faces the outside of the cell (membrane)

  • exocytosis

Vacuole

• contains enzymes for redox reactions

• breaks down toxic chemicals

• membrane bound sac

• regulates the amount of water in the cell

• stores water & nutrients

• helps with endocytosis and exocytosis

• PLANT:

  • basically all purpose function

• ANIMAL:

  • small vacuoles (not really)

  • they all have a specific function

Cytoskeleton

• Is a bunch of protein fibres

• serves as a path for vesicles and organelles to move on

• forms methods of movement

  • cilia

  • flagella

• has 3 parts that can be used and rebuilt

  • creates appendages

    • micotubules

      • ex centrioles

  • acts as tracks

    • microfilaments

    • actin filaments

• exists in both animal and plant cells

Endosymbiosis

• Some eukaryotic organelles were evolved from prokaryotes being engulfed by another prokaryote

• involves:

  • mitochondria

  • chloroplast

Mitochondria

• 2 membranes

  • Smooth on the outer membrane

  • Cristae on the inner membrane

• Filled with matrix

• converts nutrients into energy for the cell

  • aka ATP

• exists in both plants and animal cells

Cristae

• Folds on the inner mitochondria membrane

Matrix

• the fluid that fills the mitochondria

Chloroplast

• has chlorophyll

• contains thylakoids

• filled with stroma

• has 2 membranes

Thylakoids

• smalls disks in the chloroplast

• absorbs sunlight

Stroma

• fluid that fills the chloroplast

• carbon cycle

Cell membrane / Plasma membrane

• seperates the inside and outside of the cell

• is a phospholipid bilayer with proteins in between

  • integral proteins

  • periphe

• held together by LDF

• molecules can move freely within the membrane

  • this allows holes to be more easily repaired

• has the fluidity of vegetable oil

• Exists in both animals and plant cells

Fluidity

• affected by

  • temperature

    • Higher temperature = higher fluidity

  • phospholipid structure

    • more unsaturated = higher fluidity

  • cholesterol

    • acts as a buffer

    • @ high temp: increases melting point

    • @ low temp: goes in between phospholipids to prevent clustering

Cytosol

• Fluid in cytoplasm

Integral protein

• transports large molecules

• acts as an enzyme

• cell recognition

• signal transduction

• exists for both the inside and outside of cell

Nucleolus

• inside the nucleus

• contains RNA

• synthesizes ribosomes

Small vacuoles

• stores:

  • water

  • salts

  • carbohydrates

  • proteins

• disposes waste

• small

• only in animal cells

Centrioles

• bundles of microtubules

• organizes movement of chromosomes during cell division

Ribosomes

• Synthesizes proteins

• Found on Rough endoplasmic reticulum

Osmosis

Diffusion of water / solvents through a semipermeable membrane

Osmotic Pressure

Minimum pressure applied to solution to change the flow of osmosis

Isotonic

• Solutions that contain the same concentration of water and salt outside

• same osmotic pressure

• cells retain their shape

• Ideal for animal cells

• Not ideal for plant cells

Hypertonic

• Solutions that have a high salt concentration and low water concentration inside

• high osmotic pressure

• Not ideal for animal cells & plant cells

  • Cells will shrink because it’s trying to create equilibrium (plasmolysis)

Hypotonic

• Solutions that have low salt concentration and high water concentration inside

• lower osmotic pressure

• Not ideal for animal cells

  • cell will swell and bursts (lysis)

• Ideal for plant cells

  • swells

Peripheral proteins

• structural support

• transportation

• loosely bound to plasma membrane

• exists only on one side of the cell membrane

Channel proteins

• proteins that allow transport of ions across the membrane

• opens pores through the membrane to allow diffusion of smaller molecules

• lipoproteins

Carrier proteins

• proteins that bind to the specific molecule to transport it

• slow rate of transportation

• often used for macromolecules

• glycoproteins

• uses energy

• uses active transport / facilitated diffusion

Active transport

• movement of substances across a cell membrane

• low concentration —> high concentration

• uses ATP

• includes: Primary active transport & Secondary active transport

Facilitated diffusion

• movement of substances

• may involve usage of pores in the cell membrane

• high concentration —> low concentration

• uses the flow of a concentration gradient

• does not require energy

• passive transport

Concentration gradient

• the difference in concentration of a substance between two areas

• allows cells to use energy to create new molecules & proteins

Electrochemical gradient

• electrical gradient + concentration gradient

• difference in charge & chemical concentration across a membrane

• affects ions

• used for nerve conductions, muscle contractions and cellular respiration