BIO 120 contd.

Plants do not have ____, so spindles tend to be broader at poles. (“acentrsomal“ spindles)

centrosomes

This is the ______ stage of mitosis.

early prophase

This is the ________ stage of mitosis

late prophase (prometaphase)

This is the _______ stage of mitosis.

metaphase

This is the _________ stage of mitosis.

anaphase

This is the ________stage of mitosis

telophase

This is the _______ stage of mitosis. It usually overlaps with the telophase.

cytokinesis

PASS ME A TACO CHEF, stands for what?

prophase

metaphase

anaphase

telophase

cytokinesis

mention the two membrane protein locations

integral membrane proteins

peripheral proteins

_____ proteins sit on the surface of the membrane and form non-covalent bonds with lipids and membrane proteins

peripheral

Transmembrane or __________ proteins contain hydrophobic domains that cross the bilayer

integral membrane

mention four major functions of membrane proteins

• signal transduction

• enzymes

• transporters

• cell recognition/surface attachment

Stretches of non-polar amino acids indicate ______________ proteins (that is, even though they also have polar ends, there is a stretch of non-polar ones)

the polar

transmembrane

the polar charged amino acids are _________ while the non-polar charged amino-acids are ___

hydrophilic (can mix with water)

hydrophobic (water resistance, can only dissolve in oil-based substances)

mention three ways of movement across membranes and the amount of energy required

• passive transport - no energy required

• active transport - energy required

• exo/endocytosis

In ____________ transport, transport from high to low concentration is driven by increase in entropy.

while in _________ transport, transport against the concentration gradient (low to high con.) requires ________

passive transport

active, energy

passive transport consists of _____ and _____

diffusion

facilitated diffusion

H20, indole, glycerol are all ____________ molecules

glucose, sucrose are _________ molecules

O2, CO2, N2 are _________ molecules

Cl-, K+, Na+ are ______ molecules

small uncharged polar

large uncharged polar

---

non-polar

ions (also polar)

The difference between osmosis and diffusion is that in diffusion, _____ move from high to low conc.

But in osmosis, _______ move from high to low conc.

solutes

solvents

For osmosis to work, the _______ cannot pass through the membrane, only the solvent.

solute

todo : know difference between hypertonic, hypotonic and isotonic

The difference between diffusion and facilitated diffusion is that in facilitated diffusion, solutes move through with the aid of __________

membrane proteins

mention the three kinds of proteins involved in facilitated diffusion

• channel proteins

• carrier proteins

• gated channel proteins

These are ________ proteins

gated channel proteins

These are _____ proteins

carrier

These are _____ proteins

channel

osmosis is a kind of diffusion, under ____ transport.

passive

mention the two types of active transport

• primary

• secondary

primary transport is a kind of active transport that uses ____

secondary transport uses ____

ATP

electrochemical gradients

active transport uses energy because it moves against the concentration gradient. that is, it moves from _____ conc. to ______ conc.

low concentration to high concentration

1 ̊ active transport is ______. An example is the sodium-potassium pump.

Inside an animal cell, the ion concentrations are high in ____ but low in _____.

Outside the cell, the concentrations are reversed, so it is high in _____ and low in _____

primary transport

high in potassium, low in sodium

******
high in sodium, low in potassium

2° active transport is ____. It does not use ATP but instead _________ or electrochemical for energy.

Energy released from the ion as it moves with its concentration is used to drive movement of a solute ____ its concentration gradient.

secondary transport

ion gradients

---

against (low to high)

the transported solute moves in the same direction as the gradient of the driving ion. this is called _____ or cotransport

symport

the transported solute moves in the direction opposite from the gradient of the driving ion. this is called ____ or exchange diffusion

antiport

mention the two types of exo/endocytosis

exocytosis

endocytosis

mention the three types of endocytosis

• receptor-medicated (e.g LDL cholesterol)

• bulk-phase or pinocytosis (pino means to drink)

• phagocytosis (phago means to eat)

learn.

yes?

yes

show the process for signal transduction

reception (signal) → transduction → response

_____ is an enzyme that phosphorylates other proteins things using ATP

kinase

learn

yes?

yes

_________ is a common procedure used to separate organelles and other sub-cellular particles based on their sedimentation rate. e.g low speeds for big dense stuff and high speeds for small, light stuff

differential centrifugation

outline the process for differential centrifugation

spin → pour out supernatant → spin supernatant faster

collect pellet after each step

(supernatant are the lighter materials floating above the the pellet)

when centrifuging whole cells, first we homogenize the cells (break it down).

then we do a slow spin to get the big stuff like ____

then we gather up what is floating at the top (supernatant) and spin it faster to get smaller fragments like _______ and _____

gather up supernatant and spin even faster to get smaller stuff like _____, _____ and ____

nuclei

mitochondria, chloroplasts

ribosomes, proteins, nucleic acids

we discussed two main research methods, differential centrifugation and _____ which won the Noble Prize in chemistry 2008

green fluorescent protein (GFP)

green fluorescent protein (GFP) is good for visualizing subcellular structures such as organelles and membranes

also good for:_

visualizing whole cell behaviour

whole-organ growth and physiology

molecular scale processes

true or false?

true

mention four things the nucleus consists of.

a nucleus is an _____ (an organ ish found in the cell)

organelle

nuclear pore complex

nuclear envelope

chromatin

nucleolus

nuceloplasm

the double membrane surrounding the nucleus is the _______

DNA + associated proteins in the nucleus are stored in the _____

the site of the ribosomal subunit assembly is at the _____

these determine what goes in and and out of the nucleus ____

the “cytoplasm“ of the nucleus _____

nuclear envelope

chromatin

nucleolus

nuclear pore complex

nucleoplasm

the green hairy looking things are the ______ found in the nucleus

nuclear pore complex

prokaryotic cells are _____ (they lack a nucleus).

protists cells are ____ (have more than one nucleus) e.g _____

anucleate

multinucleate, amoeba

some cells lose their nucleus as the mature, e.g ____________ cells (hint : mammalian and blood)

mammalian blood cells

mention the 7 parts of the endomembrane system and membrane trafficking

nuclear envelope

Golgi

lysosomes

vacuoles

plasma membrane

nuclear envelope

endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

the nuclear envelope is an extension of the ______. This is mainly due to _________ after anaphase

endoplasmic reticulum

cell division

the ____________ system is responsible for metabolic activities like breakdown, storage, synthesis

vesicles carry stuff from compartment to compartment. The vesicle contents are released, then the vesicle membrane gets incorporated into target membrane and the vesicle membrane proteins gets incorporated into _____

target membrane

outline the process of how vesicles move

ER → Golgi → Plasma membrane

facilitated diffusion involves the help of _____

membrane proteins

• carrier proteins

• channel proteins

• gated channel proteins

endocytosis has three types, it involves the use of vesicles.

• phagocytosis (to eat)

• pinocytosis (to drink)

• receptor medicated

pinocytosis is how our cells absorb nutrients.

phagocytosis would be how our red blood cells kill bacteria

receptor medicated would be for absorbing specific substances, like cholesterol

mention the stages of interphase

G1 phase - cell is just growing

S (synthesis phase) - genetic material starts replicating, we get two centrosomes and the chromosomes duplicate into sister chromatids but are still the same amount prior.

G2 phase - cell grows even more, preparing for mitosis

---

G1 → S → G2

the plasma membrane is also called ______

cell membrane

during the G2 stage, although the cell replicates its genetic material, it does not double the number of existing chromosomes, they just increase in size since they are copies joined to one.

these are called ______

sister chromatids

the middle of where the two sister chromatids are joined is called the ________

centromere

In the ______ stage of mitosis, the sister chromatids become more condensed, and the nuclear membrane starts to go away. The centrosomes also start separating to the sides

prophase

In the _____ stage of mitosis, the microtubules from the centrosomes latch onto the sister chromatids and line them on a plate.

also, each centrosome contains _____ centriole

metaphase

2 centrioles ( 1 centrosome = 2 centrioles)

In the ____stage of mitosis , the microtubules pull the sister chromatids apart so they are double chromosomes (i.e 2 sister chromatids are now 4 chromosomes) and have one of each on either side

instead of the centromere holding the sister chromatids together, the microtubules now latch on to the kinetochore of each chromosome.

anaphase

In the _____ of mitosis, the nuclear envelopes start to form around each pair of chromosomes

telophase

______ is really what divides the cells together after telophase, taking us back again to _____

cytokinesis

interphase

the endoplasmic reticulum has two parts : _____ and ______

ribosomes are found in the ________

smooth ER

rough ER

---

rough ER - ribosomes

lipid synthesis and detoxification occurs in the __________ of the endoplasmic reticulum. This part also contains ____ cisternae

protein translation, folding and modification occurs in the ______ of the endoplasmic reticulum. Contains ___ cisternae

smooth ER - tubular cisternae

rough ER - flattened cisternae

after ribosomes in the rough ER translate mRNA to protein, they can either stay in the ___ of the rough ER or be packaged into vesicles and sent to the _____

lumen of the rough ER

---

golgi

_______ synthesizes lipids, phospholipids and steroids. Not abundant in most cells, only the ones that need to secrete those substances.

also present in cells that detoxify drugs and alcohol

smooth ER

________ receives vesicles containing protein from the ER and other locations and adds molecules to them preparing them to be delivered to different parts of the cell in vesicles.

like a post office of some kind

golgi bodies

lysosomes are not present in what organism? _____

plants

_______ are like the trash can of the cell. It is acidic like the stomach and hydrolyses or kills internal and external stuff.

internal stuff like old organelles and/or cells not working properly are hydrolyzed in a process called ________ (degrading of cells)

external stuff like bacteria and debris are engulfed by _____

lysosomes

---

autophagy

---

phagocytosis

________are present in animals, plants and fungi. Only plants and fungi would have a large central vacuole though, animals have multiple smaller ones

they are like specialized lysosomes

some of their functions

• digest waste products

• sometimes contain pigments

• turgor pressure

• storage of nutrients

• maintain ion gradients

vacuoles

cell organelles can be organized into five parts

nucleus

endomembrane system

semi-autonomous organelles

cytoskeleton

extracellular matrices

what sets the endomembrane system apart, is that they send or receive _____. So even though semi-autonomous organelles are surrounded by membranes, they are not part of the system.

vesicles

mention the semi-autonomous organelles of a cell

mitochondria

chloroplasts

the two semi-autonomous organelles, mitochondria and chloroplasts use electrochemical reactions to make ___________. They have internal membranes with extensive folding to increase ____ of the energy-producing machine

energy

surface area

mitochondria and chloroplasts are referred to as semi-autonomous because they can almost operate entirely on their own.

they have their own:-

a) _________

b) _________

c) __________

d) ___________

genome, although most of them were lost or transferred to the host cell

replicate on their own (like cell division)

own ribosomes and make their own proteins, but most proteins still come from the host cell

have double membranes

they also have similar shapes and sizes as modern prokaryotes

there is a theory that semi-autonomous cells like the mitochondria and chloroplasts were once prokaryotic microbes like cyanobacteria once living independently but have now evolved to rely on the host cell and lost independence.

endosymbiotic theory

mitochondria is responsible for _________ in organisms while chloroplasts are responsible for ______

respiration

---

photosynthesis

the ______ is the source of all cellular respiration which creates ATP. it has ____ membrane and the inner membrane has folds called ___

the ____ is the "cytoplasm” of the mictochondria

mitochondria

two membranes

cristae

matric

chloroplasts perform photosynthesis which generates _____.

The ______ is the “cytoplasm“. It has ___ membranes, two boundary membranes and one internal thylakoid membrane.

stacks of thylakoids are called _____. Photosynthetic reactions occur in the _________ and ________

sugars

stroma

three

---

grana

thylakoids and stroma

plastid types have roles in storage and pigmentation. They descended from chloroplasts.

Mention two and which one have pigments

chromoplasts - has pigments for organ colouration

leucoplasts - no pigments. e.g amyloplasts - starch storage and proteinoplast for protein storage