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What is the polis?
A community or city-state in Ancient Greece.
According to ancient political theory, what is the highest goal for an individual?
Varies by thinker, but generally it revolves around achieving the “good life” or eudaimonia through virtue and participation in the political community.
According to ancient political theory, what is the most basic role of the government?
The most basic role of the government is to promote the common good and ensure justice.
According to ancient political theory, what is the link between education and virtue?
Education is seen as crucial for cultivating virtue. Plato and Aristotle believed that virtue is developed through education and moral training. Education helps us learn how to reason and make ethical decisions.
Virtue
Behavior showing high moral standards.
Justice according to Plato
The harmony that arises when everyone in society performs their proper role according to their abilities.
What is Plato’s basic structure of society he proposes?
Plato envisioned a hierarchy in society, with philosopher-kings who rule, guardians and auxiliaries (soldiers) who protect, and producers who create goods and perform other necessary work. Each filling their role working towards the common good.
What restrictions did Plato put on the lifestyle of guardians and why?
No private property, no communal living, and sexual relationships were regulated. These were all enforced to make sure that they did not put their own well-being’s over that of the state’s.
What qualifies people to be guardians or auxiliaries?
They must have a good character (courage, discipline), showing undeniable loyalty to the city. They are expected to have a high quality education in which they learn virtues (wisdom for auxiliaries, courage for guardians). They must be tested for their suitability as well.
What is the “Myth of the Metals” and its purpose?
Also known as the "Noble Lie," it is a story from Plato's The Republic used to explain social order and justify his class-structured-society. Its purpose is to instill loyalty and fulfillment by suggesting that citizens are born with different "metals" in their souls, determining their role in society. Brass, iron, silver, gold (lowest class to highest).
Justice in the Individual according to Plato
Plato believed that a person has justice within themselves if they have a well-ordered soul in which reason governs, spirit supports reason, and appetites (desires) are regulated, matching the structure of a just state.
Plato
Philosopher, Socrates student, born in Athens 427 BCE
Aristotle
Philosopher, Plato’s student, born in 384 BCE
What is meant by calling humans “political animals”?
It implies that people are innately social beings that flourish in organized communities and participating in communal decision-making.
To Aristotle, how is a polis necessary for human moral fulfillment?
The polis is necessary for moral fulfillment because it enables humans to live according to their nature as rational/social beings. Only within a well-ordered political community can individuals develop virtues.
How does Aristotle differ from Plato on degree of unity in the polis?
He criticizes Plato’s extreme unity, arguing that excessive unity, such as communal property and family, undermines the polis. He sees the polis as a composite of diverse groups, maintaining a balance within unity.
How does Aristotle differ from Plato on attitude toward nature and the physical world?
Unlike Plato, who devalues the physical world in favor of the realm of Forms, Aristotle embraces nature as the foundation of knowledge and ethics.
Plato’s Realm of Forms
The realm of forms is a philosophical concept that refers to a spiritual realm of unchangeable concepts. According to Plato, the realm of forms is imperfectly imitated by our physical world.
How does Aristotle differ from Plato on attitude toward existing regimes and written laws?
Aristotle is more pragmatic than Plato, he evaluates existing regimes rather than trying to propose an ideal one, and advocates for mixed government/the rule of law as stabilizing forces.
How does Aristotle differ from Plato on property requirements for guardians?
Aristotle rejects Plato’s communal property system for guardians, arguing that private property encourages responsibility.
What are the 6 types of constitutions we must study?
Correct Forms:
Kingship – Rule by one virtuous ruler for the common good.
Tyranny – The corrupt form of kingship, where a single ruler governs for personal benefit.
Aristocracy – Rule by a few virtuous individuals who govern in the interest of all.
Deviant Forms:
Oligarchy – The corrupt form of aristocracy, where the wealthy few rule for their own advantage.
Polity – A balanced government that mixes democratic and oligarchic elements, promoting the common good.
Democracy – The corrupt form of polity, where the poor majority rules in its own interest rather than for the whole community.
What differentiates good from bad regimes?
Good regimes aim at the common good, promoting justice and virtue, while bad regimes serve the interests of the rulers at the expense of the community.
Why are democracies and oligarchies only partially just?
Democracies and oligarchies are only partly just because they focus on one part of justice. Democracy values equality but ignores merit, while oligarchy values wealth but ignores the good of all. Neither fully considers the common good.
How can we make democracies and oligarchies better?
Aristotle says we can improve democracies and oligarchies by blending their elements like equality and merit, ensuring neither the rich nor the poor have absolute control, this would create a balanced government (polity) that serves the common good.
How does polity relate to democracies and oligarchies?
Polity is a mixed government that combines elements of both democracy and oligarchy, balancing equality and merit to serve the common good.
What is the best and worst form of government, according to Aristotle?
Polity is the best form of government and tyranny is the worst.
According to Hobbes, what is it that drives human passions like appetites and aversions?
Our feelings and desires from movements inside the body, especially the heart, which are triggered by things we experience and lead to what we want or dislike.
According to Hobbes, what do we mean by calling something “good” or “evil”?
“Good" and "evil" are subjective terms, meaning that what one person considers good, another may consider evil, and vice versa, based on their individual desires and fears.
According to Hobbes, what is the state of nature like?
Hobbes believed that the state of nature was chaos and anarchy. Without a government to coordinate the individual, people will have to fight for necessities like food and shelter.
What is the Right of Nature?
The Right of Nature is a legal concept that grants nature, like rivers, forests, or ecosystems, legal rights and protections. This concept says that nature has the right to exist and flourish.
What are the first 3 laws of nature?
Right to self-preservation: Every individual has a natural right to protect their own life and well-being.
Law of mutual transfer: People should seek peace and pursue it, and if they cannot obtain peace, they are justified in using force for self-defense.
Law of fairness: Individuals should be willing to give up some of their freedoms in exchange for peace and security.
What rights do we renounce when entering civil society?
The right to use force: Individuals give up the right to act on their own authority by using force, allowing the sovereign to enforce laws and maintain peace.
The right to judge: People renounce the right to personally determine what is just or unjust, leaving that decision to the sovereign or the legal system.
The right to do whatever is necessary for self-preservation: While self-preservation is still important, individuals agree to limit actions that might harm others, with the understanding that a collective authority will provide protection.
Does Hobbes support limiting the power of the sovereign or dividing governmental powers between branches?
No, Hobbes does not support limiting the power of the sovereign or dividing governmental powers between branches. He argues for a strong, undivided sovereign authority. He believes that in order to maintain peace and security, the sovereign must have absolute power to enforce laws and make decisions without division or limitation.
When can the sovereign be removed by the people?
According to Hobbes, the sovereign can only be removed by the people in extreme circumstances where the sovereign fails to provide the primary function of ensuring peace and security (protecting citizens from violence).
Thomas Hobbes
Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) was an English philosopher best known for his work on political theory.
John Locke
John Locke (1632–1704) was an English philosopher and one of the most influential figures in the development of modern political theory.
What does Locke think about the State of Nature?
According to him, people are normally calm and reasonable in the state of nature, but without a centralized authority to settle conflicts, their rights to life, liberty, and property may be in jeopardy. More optimism than Hobbes.
State of Nature
A concept used in political philosophy to describe the condition of human beings before the establishment of organized society or government.
How does Locke differ from Hobbes regarding human nature?
Hobbes: Believes humans are naturally selfish and violent, leading to chaos in the state of nature.
Locke: Believes humans are generally rational and cooperative, but need a government to protect their rights.
How does Locke differ from Hobbes regarding social contract?
Hobbes: People give up all rights to an absolute sovereign for peace and security.
Locke: People form a government to protect natural rights, and can overthrow it if it fails.
How does Locke differ from Hobbes regarding government?
Hobbes: Advocates for absolute, undivided power.
Locke: Supports a limited government that is accountable to the people.
What are Locke’s view’s on the Law of Nature?
Locke's views on the Law of Nature are based on the idea that humans have natural rights, such as life, liberty, and property, which are inherent and not granted by any government. The law is a set of moral rules that guide how people should behave, and we can understand it through reason.
What are Locke’s limits on the government?
The government’s power comes from the consent of the people, who agree to be ruled in exchange for protection of their rights.
The government’s role is to protect people’s natural rights to life, liberty, and property. It cannot violate these rights.
The government’s powers should be divided to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful.
If the government violates the people's rights or becomes tyrannical, the people have the right to overthrow it.
When is a revolution justified?
When the government violates the people’s natural rights or become tyrannical.
Liberalism
A political philosophy that emphasizes individual rights, democracy, and the rule of law. It advocates for limited government intervention in people's lives, promoting personal freedom and equality.
What are the 4 basic tenets of liberalism discussed in class?
Individualism
Egalitarianism
Universalism
Meliorism
The Enlightenment
The Enlightenment (late 17th to 18th century) was a movement that emphasized reason, individualism, and skepticism of authority. It prioritized reason over inherited tradition and religious orthodoxy. Agreed that we needed to have more individual freedom but still a stabilized society.
What are liberals attitudes toward limited government and individual rights?
Liberals support limited government to prevent tyranny and protect individual rights. They believe the government should exist to safeguard freedoms like speech, property, and equality, but not interfere excessively in personal lives.
Classical Liberalism vs. Modern Liberalism
Classical Liberalism: Enlightenment liberalism that focuses on questions of economic and individual liberty. This form of Liberalism is commonly associated with Libertarianism. Maximizing individual freedom, minimal government interference.
Modern Liberalism: Still adheres to the basic principles, but applies them differently. Equality before the law is no longer enough and we need a more substantive version of equality. This form is commonly associated with progressivism, making the government an important tool in advancing liberty/progress.
4 Categories of Critics in Liberalism
Conservatism
Communitarianism
Socialism
Feminism
Conservatism
Universal Rights vs. Inherited Rights; Dim view of individuals capacity for reason and it is better to rely on traditions and customs.
What is Edmund Burke’s Reflections on the Revolution in France?
In the Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790), Burke stated that the revolution was destroying the fabric of good society and traditional institutions of state and society, and he supported the persecution of the Catholic Church that resulted from it.
What is Edmund Burke’s attitude toward individual reason and tradition?
He is skeptical of individual reason as a guide for political and social order. He argues that human reason is limited and liable, making it dangerous to rely on abstract principles to reshape society. Instead, he emphasizes the wisdom weaved in tradition, which assembles the collective experience of various generations.
What is Edmund Burke’s attitude toward individual rights?
Although Edmund Burke accepts the existence of individual rights, he feels that these rights must be interpreted in accordance with a society’s customs. He challenges abstract, universal ideas of rights, which were proclaimed during the French Revolution, arguing that they are inherited and influenced by a country's institutions and practices rather than being inherent.
What is Edmund Burke’s attitude toward change and reform?
He is in favor of cautious, gradual reform that honors social continuity and tradition. Because he believes that dramatic or revolutionary change is unstable and hazardous, he opposes it. In order to ensure stability and preserve the accumulated wisdom of previous generations, he thinks that reforms should build upon existing institutions rather than abolish them.
American Conservative Intellectual Movement
The American conservative intellectual movement emerged in the mid-20th century as a response to liberalism, socialism, and communism. It consists of several ideological strands, including traditionalism, libertarianism, and anti-communism. The movement emphasizes limited government, free markets, individual liberty, cultural tradition, and a strong national defense.
What were the original 3 groups within the conservative movement?
Traditionalists
Libertarians
Anti-Communists
What common enemies did traditionalists, libertarians, and anti-communists share?
They opposed socialists and communists.
What is meant by “fusionist” conservatism?
"Fusionist" conservatism blends traditional values, free markets, and anti-communism. It balances individual freedom with social order. This approach united conservatives.
Neo-Conservatives.
Neo-conservatives are a group who emerged in the mid-20th century, originally from liberal backgrounds. They emphasize a strong national defense, an active foreign policy (often supporting military intervention), free markets, and limited government. Domestically, they support traditional values but accept some welfare policies.
How did neo-conservatives differ from the “Old Right” consensus? (foreign policy!!)
Neo-conservatives differed from the Old Right by supporting interventionist foreign policy, accepting a limited welfare state, and focusing on cultural issues. They came from liberal backgrounds, while the Old Right emphasized isolationism, minimal government, and economic concerns.
What is the “Religious Right”?
The "Religious Right" is a political movement in the U.S. that emerged in the late 20th century, primarily composed of conservative Christian groups. It advocates for traditional moral values, such as opposition to abortion, same-sex marriage, and secularism.
How did “Religious Right” protestors differ from earlier traditionalists?
Religious Right protesters focused more on moral issues like abortion and same-sex marriage, actively challenging the government. In contrast, earlier traditionalists emphasized cultural preservation and were less politically aggressive.
Paleo-Conservatives
Paleoconservatives emphasize traditional values, limited government, and nationalism. They oppose immigration, globalization, and interventionist foreign policy, favoring isolationism and a return to American historical values.
What are paleo-conservatives attitudes toward the “Old Right” and Neocons?
Paleoconservatives criticize the Old Right for its lack of action and the Neocons for their interventionist foreign policy and support for globalism. They see both as deviating from traditional conservative principles.
National Conservatism vs. Post-Fusionist Conservatism
National Conservatism emphasizes the importance of national sovereignty, preserving cultural identity, and upholding traditional values like family and religion. It often rejects globalism and focuses on protecting national interests.
Post-Fusionist Conservatism moves away from the earlier blend of traditionalism and libertarianism. It focuses more on populist ideas, challenges the political establishment, and places greater importance on cultural and social issues, often with less emphasis on free-market economics.
Libertarians
Libertarians advocate for minimal government interference in both personal and economic matters. They emphasize individual liberty, free markets, and limited government, believing that people should have the freedom to make their own choices as long as they do not harm others.
Marxism
Revolutionary form of Socialism created by Karl Marx. All politics is driven by class conflict and history is moving toward a global Proletariat revolution.
Marx’s Theory of History (Dialectical Materialism)
Dialectical materialism, or Marx's theory of history, argues that class conflicts and economic conditions have molded history. Marx argues that social, political, and ideological systems (the superstructure) are influenced by economic structures (the material base). Conflicts between various groups, such as the bourgeoisie and proletariat, are what propel historical development as society's economic forces change.
What did Marx borrow from Hegel?
He borrowed his philosophy of history - Movement of geist (spirit) through time
What did Marx introduce on his own?
Marx introduced the concept of materialism to replace Hegel's idealism. Marx argued that material conditions, especially economic factors and class struggles, drive historical change. Marx also focused on the concept of exploitation under capitalism and the role of the working class (proletariat) in overthrowing the capitalist system.
What type of effect does capitalism have on workers and on society, according to Marx?
According to Marx, capitalism has a dehumanizing effect on workers and society. Workers are exploited, meaning they are paid less than the value they produce, with the surplus value taken by capitalists (owners). This leads to alienation, where workers become disconnected from the products of their labor, the production process, other workers, and even themselves.
What effect does Marx say capitalism has on borders between states?
Marx argues that capitalism intensifies divisions within states, creating class distinctions between the bourgeoisie (capitalists) and the proletariat (workers). Capitalism focuses on economic exploitation, leading to inequality and conflict within countries.
Does Marx predict the communist revolution will be global or contained within discrete countries?
Marx predicts that the communist revolution will be global rather than contained within individual countries.
What will happen to class distinctions in a communist society? The state? Private property?
Class distinctions would be abolished, the state would slowly wither away, and private property rights would be abolished.
Fascism
Fascism is an authoritarian political system where the government has complete control over the country, often led by a dictator. It emphasizes strong nationalism, power, and unity, often at the expense of individual freedoms.
What was distinctive about Nazism as a form of fascism?
Nazism was distinctive because it put emphasis on racial superiority which fascism never addressed.
What are the 7 general traits of fascism?
Extreme Nationalism
Totalitarian central government
Rejects both classical liberalism and socialism
Belief in “Social Darwinism” - the strong will over take the weak
Celebration or use of violence and militarism
Narrative of past national prominence and subsequent decline
Personal devotion to charismatic leader
How does fascism differ from both classical liberalism and socialism?
It differs from classical liberalism, which values individual freedoms, democracy, and free markets, and from socialism, which seeks government control of resources to promote equality. Fascism allows private property but controls the economy, while socialism aims for collective or state ownership.
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