A&P of Speech (SLHS 3400) -- Exam 2

Volume (L)

how much air that an individual inhales or exhales

Tidal volume (TV)

the volume of air that we move in and out of our lungs during resting breathing or during speech activities; ~0.5 L, but will be more for yelling/singing

Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)

the maximum volume of air that we can voluntarily inhale above tidal volume

~ 3 L

Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)

the amount of air that we can voluntarily expel from our lungs

~ 1.1 L

Residual volume (RV)

the volume of air that is always present in our lung tissue (unusable, does not leave until we die)

Vital capacity (VC)

Tidal Volume (TV) + Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) + Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)

~ 4.5 L of air

Inspiratory capacity (IC)

Tidal Volume (TV) + Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)

functional reserve capacity (FRC)

Residual Volume (RV) + Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)

total lung capacity (TLC)

sum of everything

~ 6 L of air

Pulmonary ventilation (V_E)

measure of the rate at which we move air in and out of the lung

calculated in minutes

= Tidal volume (TV) × Breathing frequency

Ex) Average: 0.5 L × 12 breaths per min = 6 L per minute

During Rest Breathing, we inhale and exhale approx. ______ liter(s) of air

½

Pressure

used to indicate how the combo of muscle forces and air volumes can be used to produce speech at a target loudness level or for production of a cough that is sufficient to clear the airway

Equation for Pressure

Force/Area

Pressure exerted by a gas results from…

the collision of air molecules with the walls of the lungs

The greater the number of collisions…

the higher the pressure

The fewer the number of collisions…

the lower the pressure

Boyle’s Law

decrease volume of a gas → pressure increases

increase volume → pressure decreases

Pressure = 1/Volume

Atm

average air pressure at sea level on earth

pulmonary ventilation (breathing) depends on …

periodic pressure changes in the lung

Air flows from an area of ________ to _______

higher pressure to lower pressure

During inspiration, pressure in the lungs becomes _____ than the pressure in the atmosphere

lower

(We are expanding our lungs, increasing the size of the container.)

During expiration pressure in the lungs is ______ than the pressure in the atmosphere.

higher

(Our lungs deflate, decreasing the size of the container.)

High temp = ____ pressure

low

Cold temp = ____ pressure

high

Inspiration begins when…

the diaphragm contracts and enlarges the thoracic cage (makes bigger space, lowering pressure)

air moves from high pressure in atmosphere to low pressure in the lungs

During expiration…

The diaphragm relaxes and the elastic tissues in the lung recoils

As the lungs recoil, the air is compressed and the alveolar pressure rises above the atmospheric pressure

Alveolar Pressure vs Intrapleural pressure (Picture)

• Alveolar pressure = lung pressure = intrapulmonary pressure

• Intrapleural pressure is DIFFERENT 

What is our resting state atmosphere (lung) pressure?

760 mm HG

During inspiration, the resting state atmosphere pressure (760mm) becomes ______.

lower

During expiration, the resting state atmosphere pressure (760mm) becomes ______.

higher

Lung Compliance

a measure of the ease with which the lungs can be inflated

Lung Compliance Equation

Change in lung volume / Change in pressure

(Compliance = dV / dP)

As lung compliance increases, the elastic recoil of the lungs _______.

decreases

if compliance gets too high, what is necessary to produce adequate pressures for speech?

forced exhalation

As lung compliance decreases…

elastic recoil of lungs increases

vital capacity of lings reduces

If compliance gets too low, what happens?

frequent breath pauses occur during speech

Emphysema

Lungs expand easily, but may not recoil well → increases compliance

Asbestosis

Thickening or stiffening of lung tissue → decreases the compliance of the lung

Lying down, you use muscle differently due to gravity because….

you’re relying less on the abdominal wall

Speech Breathing

the specific pattern of respiration that occurs when a person speaks; we modify our expiration and use the respiratory system as "air source” or “air supply”

involves both muscular and non-muscular forces

Speech requires…

requires fairly constant pressure and flow in the upper airway

Output Variables of Speech Breathing (what impacts speech breathing):

Lung Volume

Pressure

Flow of Pressure

Shape of Chest Wall

Lung Volume

Tidal volume for normal breathing ~0.5 L (10- 20%

VC)

Speech : about 60-35 % VC

Pressure

Tidal breathing: alveolar pressures ~1cm H2O

Speech breathing: alveolar pressures ~8-10cm H2O

Flow of Pressure

air flow: areas of higher pressure → areas of lower pressure

Airflow is measured: the rate at which volume change occurs (volume/time)

Airflow during speech: ~100-300 mL/sec

Shape of Chest Wall

shape of the chest wall varies based on shapes of the rib cage, abdominal wall, and diaphragm. The movement of these components impact our speech breathing.

rib cage contact area with the lungs vs. abdomen and diaphragm

rib cage contact: 75%

abdomen and diaphragm contact: 25%

(Less volume of air is moved with the abdomen than with the rib cage)

Steady Utterance Patterns

Lung Volume: decreases as we speak/exhale

Alveolar Pressure: remains steady as we speak/exhale and drops when we stop

Rib Cage/Abdominal wall volume: decrease as we speak/exhale

Inspirations are ____, expirations are ______.

faster

slower/longer

Alveolar pressure is _____ during inspiration, and ______ during expiration.

negative

positive

the volume inspired for conversational loudness is _____ than than inspired for loud speaking.

lower

Loud Speaking:

less inspiratory muscle effort required, shorter vital capacity range

greater expiratory muscle effort required, greater vital capacity range

Soft Speaking:

greater inspiratory muscle effort required, greater vital capacity range

less expiratory muscle effort required, less vital capacity range

At high lung volume (80-60%VC), speech breathing involves...

passive expiratory pressures and some active inspiratory musculature

recoil pressures are considerable → must use inspiratory muscles to check or "brake" the expiratory recoil

In mid- (60-35%VC) and low- lung volumes (<35%VC), speech breathing involves…

active expiratory pressures.

mid lung volumes: passive recoil is increased with active muscle

low lung volume: we need expiratory muscles to overcome inspiratory recoil

Upright body position

Steady utterance

• Relaxation pressure

• Alveolar pressure

• Muscular pressure

• Chest wall patterns

first, inspiratory muscles “brake” the natural recoil of the lungs.

then, expiratory muscles and abdominals take over to keep air pressure steady for the sound

Supine body position

Steady utterance

• Relaxation pressure

• Alveolar pressure

• Muscular pressure

• Chest wall patterns

The diaphragm does most of the work at first, while rib and abdominal muscles only join in toward the end to help keep pressure steady.

Heavy Exercise impacts on Chest/Abdominal Wall

requires higher ventilation rates to carry oxygen to working muscles → requires maximal changes to both the rib cage wall and abdominal wall diameter

Conversational Speech impacts on Chest/Abdominal Wall

Conversational speech requires relatively equal contributions of chest and abdominal wall displacement.

Endomorph

high relative fatness; abdominal wall has a greater inward position and motion than the other types, likely due to the need for increased tuning of the diaphragm for speech.

Mesomorph

high muscular development; the position of the diaphragm varies between the locations of the endomorph and ectomorph

Ectomorph

high relative linearity and maintains the ideal diaphragm position for speech

By age ___, speech breathing patterns become more like those of an adult.

10

By the time adults enter their ______, breath groups start at larger lung volumes

70s - 80s

males in this age group become more "leaky," while females tend to "blow off" air more frequently.

respiratory muscles

are skeletal muscles

contract as a result of the action of motor neurons

under automatic and voluntary control

Automatic respiratory muscle control depends on…

groups of neurons in the brainstem

Voluntary respiratory muscle control depends on…

cortical control

Voluntary control of respiration

Descending pathways from the cerebral cortex let us modify breathing to Speak, Sing, Swim/dive, Play wind instruments

rhythmic breathing; “pacemaker-like” activity that turns the inspiratory neurons on and off

Expiratory neurons are silent at rest, but are activated when breathing activity must be increased

Automatic Control

Dorsal respiratory group (DRG)

Ventral respiratory group (VRG)

→ “pre-motor” neurons - they synapse on and excite motoneurons to respiratory muscles

Dorsal respiratory group (DRG)

contains inspiratory neurons

→ “pre-motor” neurons - they synapse on and excite motoneurons to respiratory muscles

Ventral respiratory group (VRG)

contains expiratory neurons

→ “pre-motor” neurons - they synapse on and excite motoneurons to respiratory muscles

Tools to Measure Breathing

Pressure

Volume

Airflow

Chest Wall Kinematics 

Pressure

(measured in cm H2O)

U- tube water manometer (measures pressure w/ water column height)

Pressure transducer (measures pressure w/ pneumotachograph/face mask device)

Volume

(measured in cc, ml or L)

Wet spirometer (measures volume w/ clip on nose and inhalation and exhalation)

Airflow

(measured in ml/sec or LPS)

Pneumotachograph (measures airflow by using a pressure transducer that detects and quantifies the speed at which the volume of air passes through it)

Chest Wall Kinematics

(Rib cage and abdominal volume changes associated with breathing or speaking)

respiratory induced plethysmography (respitrace) (around torso patient wears a miniature oscillator that connects to coils of wire)

magnetometer

specialized receptors 

inform the neurons about the body’s needs for ventilation

Chemoreceptors

Sense O2 , acidity, alkalinity, CO2 in bloodstream (carotid and aortic bodies)

Sense CO2 in Cerebral Spinal Fluid (CSF) via brainstem receptors

Mechanoreceptors

stretch receptors

Progressive Neuromuscular Disorders

affect the nerves that control voluntary muscles and the nerves that communicate sensory information back to the brain; cause progressive deterioration

Ex) ALS

Spinal Muscular Atrophy

disease that damages and kills motor neurons, affecting the movement in your arms, legs, face, chest, throat, and tongue

muscles start to weaken and waste away; can affect speaking, walking, swallowing, and breathing.

Q: What is the formula for pulmonary ventilation (VE)?

VE = Tidal volume x Breathing frequency

Q: During expiration, what happens to alveolar pressure?

It becomes higher than atmospheric pressure

Q: The term "passive force" of the respiratory system means:

The force is developed by recoil of elastic structures which have been deformed from their

rest positions

Q: Dyspnea means:

breathing discomfort or perception of shortness of breath

Q: Chemoreceptors detect changes in:

Oxygen, acidity, alkalinity, and carbon dioxide in the bloodstream

Q: The ectomorph body type is characterized by:

High relative linearity and ideal diaphragm position for speech

Q: What percentage of lung surface area does the rib cage contact?

75%

Q: Vital capacity (VC) is the sum of which three volumes?

TV + IRV + ERV

Q: Which body type is characterized by high relative fatness?

Endomorph

Q: What does conversational speech typically require in terms of chest and abdominal wall displacement?

Relatively equal contribution of chest and abdominal walls

Q: Females have ________ vital capacity than men.

smaller

Q: At low lung volumes (lower than 35% VC), what is primarily required for speech breathing?

Expiratory muscle force

Q: In extended steady utterances (sustained vowels) of normal loudness (with an alveolar pressure target of 5-10 cmH20), why is inspiratory muscular effort required at very high lung volumes?

The passive expiratory forces (recoil pressure) are too strong, inspiratory muscles are used to "check" this excess pressure and maintain a steady airflow

Q: What kind of pressure is responsible for generating alveolar pressure during tidal breathing?

Relaxation pressure (elastic recoil)

Q: Which device measures pressure by the difference in height of water columns?

U-tube water manometer

Q: Respiratory capacity is measured using which of the following?

Spirometer

Q: What is lung compliance defined as?

Change in volume per unit change in pressure

Q: In a supine position, what muscle primarily contributes to inspiration?

Diaphragm

Q: Chest wall movements are measured by:

Respiratory-induced plethysmography or magnetometer