Psychology Units 0-2 (Semester 1) Final Exam Review Flashcards

Experiment VS. Non-Experimental

Experiments manipulate variables, non-experiments observe them.

Independent Variable

The factor that a researcher manipulates or changes in an experiment to observe its effect on another variable.

Dependent Variable

The outcome or response measured in an experiment.

Confounding Variable

An extra, unmeasured factor that influences both the independent and dependent variables in an experiment, making it unclear if the independent variable truly caused the effect, thus threatening the study's internal validity.

Random Assignment

A crucial experimental technique where participants are placed into control or experimental groups by chance, giving everyone an equal opportunity, to eliminate bias and ensure groups are equivalent, thus allowing researchers to confidently claim the independent variable caused changes in the independent variable (internal validity).

Population

The entire group of individuals that a researcher wants to study and draw conclusions about.

Sample

A smaller, manageable group of participants selected from a larger population to participate in a research study.

Varying Levels of Consciousness (sleep/wakefulness)

Wakefulness involves high sensory/cognitive engagement and sleep means reduced activity and awareness, with transitions like daydreaming, intoxication, or anesthesia representing other states, all controlled by brain functions like the circadian rhythm.

Circadian Rhythm

The 24-hour internal clock in our brain that regulates cycles of alertness and sleepiness by responding to light changes in our environment.

Recall

Retrieving information.

Ex: fill-in-the-blank test

recognition

Identifying items previously learned.

Ex. MCQ

Relearning

Learning material faster the second time.

encode

Process information into the memory system. Types include effortful and automatic.

Storage

The process of retaining information over time.

Retrieval

Getting information out of memory storage.

Parallel Processing

Processing two aspects simultaneously.

Sensory Memory

Immediate, brief recording of sensory information.

Iconic Memory

Fleeting, short term memory for visual stimuli; lasts less than 10 seconds.

Echoic Memory

Fleeting, short term memory for auditory stimuli; lasts 3-4 seconds.

Explicit Memory

Retention of facts and experiences that one can know and declare.

Effortful Processing

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort; it's how we encode explicit memories.

Automatic Processing

Unconscious encoding of incidental memories (implicit) such as space, time, & frequency of well learned info, such as word meanings.

Implicit Memory

Retention of learned skills/classically conditioned associations.

Space

Type of implicit memory.

Ex. Writing something

time

type of implicit memory. ex: unintentinally remembering sequence of events of your day

frequency

type of implicit memory. ex: effortlessly keeping track of how often something occurs

semantic memory

facts and general knowledge; type of explicit memory

episodic memory

personally experience events; type of explicit memory

Multiple Sclerosis

An autoimmune disease where the immune system mistakenly attacks the myelin sheath, the fatty insulation on neurons that is crucial for fast transmission. The action potential is slowed down due to demyelination. It is characterized by numbness, weakness, and can lead to difficulty and loss of walking, talking, and moving.

Myasthenia Gravis

An autoimmune disease where antibodies block acetylcholine receptors, causing fluctuating muscle weakness.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers sent between neurons via synapses. They help control mood, learning, movement, and behavior. Types include excitatory(stimulating the cell) and inhibitory(calming the cell).

Dopamine

A key neurotransmitter that plays a crucial role in the reward pathway(which influences pleasure and motivation). It also influences attention, mood, movement, and learning. Its crucial role in movement is why Parkinson's disease is linked to its dysregulation. Can be either excitatory or inhibitory.

Serotonin

Sometimes called the "feel-good" chemical, it plays an important role in mood, happiness, sleep, and appetite. Imbalances in serotonin are the cause of depression and other mental disorders. It is targeted by SSRIs for this reason. Can be either excitatory or inhibitory.

Norepinephrine

Responsible for alertness, arousal, and the flight-or-fight response. It helps regulate mood, attention, and cognition. Can be either excitatory or inhibitory.

Glutamate

The brain's primary excitatory NTM, essentially tells neurons to fire/fire faster. Crucial for learning, memory formation(Long-term potentiation), and plasticity. Too much can overstimulate the brain, and is linked to seizures and migraines.

GABA

The brain's primary inhibitory NTM, tells neurons to stop firing/fire slower. Crucial for regulating anxiety, stress, sleep, and muscle relaxation. Low levels are linked to sleep and anxiety disorders.

Endorphins

The body's natural opioids, released by the pituitary gland(controlled by the hypothalamus) during stress, pain, or pleasurable activities, like exercise. Reduces pain perception and creates feelings of euphoria. Explains the "runner's high" phenomenon.

Substance P

Plays a role in pain and stress by amplifying pain signals. Elevated levels are linked to depressive and anxiety disorders.

Acetylcholine

Plays a crucial role in movement, learning, and memory. It is involved in both the peripheral and central nervous system, and in the peripheral it is released by motor neurons, allowing muscles to contract. Imbalance, due to deterioration of neurons that produce it, is linked to Alzheimer's.

Hormones

Chemical messengers in the endocrine system that travel through the blood stream to influence behavior, metabolism, emotions, growth, and reproduction.

Adrenaline

The hormone that is released by the adrenal glands(right above the kidneys) that causes the flight-or-fight response. See "Sympathetic Nervous System" card.

Leptin

A hormone secreted by fat cells that signals the hypothalamus to suppress appetite and regulate metabolism. Opposite of Ghrelin.

Ghrelin

Increases hunger, rising before meals and falling after. Secreted mainly by the stomach, and in part by the pancreas and hypothalamus. Opposite of Leptin.

Melatonin

A hormone from the pineal gland that regulates sleep-wake cycles (AKA circadian rhythm). It increases in the dark to promote sleep.

Oxytocin

A hormone that fosters social bonding, trust, empathy, and attachment. Explains some complex social behaviors such as pair bonding. Also plays a key role in childbirth and lactation.

Agonist

A molecule that mimics or enhances the effect of a NTM, increasing neural communication. This can happen either by binding to the receptor and activating it, or by blocking reuptake of the NTM. Examples include opioid drugs and endorphins, and nicotine and acetylcholine.

Antagonist

A molecule that blocks or inhibits the activation of a receptor, preventing natural NTMs from binding to and activating the receptor, thus decreasing or stopping neural communication. Examples are some anxiety and blood pressure meds.

Reuptake inhibitors

A molecule that increases the levels of NTMs in the brain by blocking their reuptake. An example is SSRIs, which stands for Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor.

Psychoactive drugs

Substances that alter brain function, affecting perception, mood, consciousness, and behavior.

Stimulants

A type of psychoactive drug that speeds up the CNS, increasing alertness, focus, and energy. Examples are cocaine and caffeine.

Depressants

Slow down the CNS, causing relaxation, sedation, and reduced anxiety. Examples are alcohol and benzodiazepines.

Hallucinogens

Alter perception, thought, and mood, creating vivid sensory experiences. Examples are LSD, THC, and MDMA.

Opioids

Reduce pain and produce euphoria. Examples are heroin, morphine, and oxycodone.

Tolerance

Repeated use of a drug causes a diminished effect.

Addiction/dependence

A disorder characterized by an increased compulsion to use drugs despite negative consequences, often to sustain a feeling of euphoria and to avoid symptoms of withdrawl. It is caused by changes in the reward pathway from drug use.

Withdrawal symptoms

Symptoms that occur when a person stops using a psychoactive drug after a period of consistent use.

Brainstem

hippocampus

"save" button for explicit memories; damage to it casues amnesia

cerebellum

forming and storing implicit memories

amygdala

emotion related memory formation

working memory

a newer understanding of short term memory that adds consciousness, active processing of incoming auditory and visual info, and of info retrieved from long term memory. sensory memory -attention> central excutive -> phonological loop/articulary control/phonological store -> LTM

information processing model

encode in sensory memory -> encode in short term memory where info is either rehearsed and and encoded or forgotten-> retreive upon demand from LTM (Multi store model)

memory consolidation

neural storage of long term memory

flashbulb memory

clear sustained memory of emotionally significant memory

ebbinghaus forgetting memory curve

intial steep drop in memory retrivel followed by steady forgetting

Long term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a cells firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning & memories and without it, memories don't stick

Chunking

organizing items into familiar unites; occurs automatically

Mnemonics

memory aids with oral tricks like with vivid imaging

Method of Loci

remmebering with topics and associations

Spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long term retention that is achieved through distributed study

massed practice

(cramming) produces short term learning and feeling of confidence but you forget quickly

distributed practice

learning over longer period of time; better for LTM

prospective memory

ability to remember a to-do task to complete in the future

autobiographical memory

personal recollection of memories; episodic & semantic

strucutral processing

how it looks; shallow processing

phonetic procesing

how it sounds; intermediate processing

semantic processing

what it means (relating it); deep processing

priming

unconscious associatons; better recall of things at begining of a list

encoding specificity principle

the idea that cues and conetxts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall; ex: facial recognition

mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall memories/experiences that are consistent with one's current mood. ex: being depressed sours memories by priming negative associations

serial position effect

tendency to recall best the last(recency effect) and the first (priming effect) items in a list

contect dependent memory

best recalled when in the same context. ex: testing in same room

anterograde amnesia

inability to form new memories; can recall past from LTM

retrograde amnesia

inability to retrieve from one's past (one's LTM)

proactive interference

old learning disrupts new. ex: can't remember new lock combo bcuz old one is nailed into your brain

retroactive interference

new learning disrupts old. ex: teacher can't remember old students names because so many new names must be learned every new year

repression

basic defense that banishes anxiety arousing memories

reconsolidation

previously stored memories, when retrived, are potentially altered before stored again

misinformation effect

occurs when misleading info distort's one's memory of event

source amnesia

faulty memory for how, when, or where info was learned/imagined

deja vu

"already experienced this"

motivated forgetting

people unknowingly revise their memories

imaginary inflation

imagining events leads people in future to believe they happened. ex: you think a dream happened in real life

maintenance rehearsal

simple repetition

elaborative rehearsal

making connections

metacognition

thinking about thinking

short term memory

lasts 7+- 2 seconds at once

state dependent memory

best recalled when in same physical state. ex: time of day is same

Stages of sleep

distinct phases of brain activity (EEG patterns) and body function cycling through Non-REM (N1, N2, N3/Deep/Slow-Wave) and REM (Dreaming) sleep, crucial for memory consolidation, physical repair, and emotional regulation, with a full cycle taking ~90-110 mins, repeating 4-6 times nightly to restore mind and body