AP Psych Unit 06 part 1

prenatal

the stage of human growth from conception to birth

zygote

the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo.

embryo

the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month.

fetus

the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth.

teratogens

“monster making” agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm.

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman’s heavy drinking; signs include a small, out-of-proportion head and abnormal facial features.

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation.

infant gaze

the intentional, developmental process of a baby using their eyes to observe, focus on and track social and environmental stimuli.

infantile amnesia

the inability of adults to retrieve episodic memories from the first 2-4 years of life.

schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation.

assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas.

accomodation

adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information.

sensorimotor stage

in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from birth to nearly 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities.

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived.

preoperational stage

in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic.

conservation

the principle that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape.

egocentrism

in Piaget’s theory, the preoperational child’s difficulty taking another’s point of view.

theory of mind

people’s ideas about their own and others’ mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.

reversibility

the cognitive ability to understand that actions, numbers, or objects can be changed and then returned to their original state

autism spectrum disorder (ASD)

a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors

concrete operational stage

in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events.

operational stage

in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts.

scaffold

a framework that offers children temporary support as they develop higher levels of thinking.

zone of proximal development

the crucial learning space between what a child can do alone and what they can achieve with guidance.

phoneme

in a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit.

morpheme

in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix).

grammar

in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others.

syntax

a set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences.

telegraphic speech

early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram—“go car”—using mostly nouns and verbs.

language acquisition device (LAD)

a theoretical mechanism by linguist Noam Chomsky, suggesting that children are born with an innate ability to learn language.

linguistic determinism

the strong form of Whorf’s hypothesis—that language controls the way we think and interpret the world around us.

stranger anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age.

attachment

an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to their caregiver and showing distress on separation.

critical period

an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development.

secure attachment

demonstrated by infants who comfortably explore environments in the presence of their caregiver, show only temporary distress when the caregiver leaves, and find comfort in the caregiver’s return.

insecure attachment

demonstrated by infants who display either a clinging, anxious attachment or an avoidant attachment that resists closeness.

temperament

a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity.

basic trust

according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers.

resilience

the tendency to bounce back and go on to lead a better life.

self-concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves in answer to the question, “Who am I?”

authoritarian

low responsiveness and strict, high demand.

permissive

high responsiveness but low demandingness.

authoritative

high responsiveness and high demands.

gender

in psychology, the socially influenced characteristics by which people define boy, girl, man, and woman.

aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally.

gender roles

a set of expected behaviors, attitudes, and traits for males or for females.

role

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.

gender identity

our sense of being male, female, or some combination of the two.

social learning theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished.

gender typing

the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role.

transgender

an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth-designated sex.

selection effect

individuals “self-select” into a group based on existing traits, preferences, and characteristics.