RELG 254: Intro to Yoga

What is the translation of yoga? Where does the word derive from?

"to yoke," "to join," "to unite," or “to harness”

Derives from Sanskrit root yuj, which means to connect, to join, or to yoke

What does yoga mean from a sectarian point of view?

the Union of the individual soul (atman) with the universal soul (Brahman) or with a higher power like Lord Śiva, which is designed to achieve liberation (moksha or samadhi).

Yogin

a practitioner of yoga, a Sanskrit term meaning "one who is yoked or joined," referring to someone who uses disciplined practices like meditation, breathwork, and ethical restraint to unite body, mind, and spirit, ultimately seeking spiritual liberation or enlightenment.

Yogi

A person who is proficient in yoga

a Yogi (male) or Yogini (female) is a dedicated practitioner of yoga, a spiritual discipline aiming for union (from the Sanskrit root yuj, "to join") with the divine or universal consciousness, characterized by self-control, inner joy, detachment, and profound spiritual insight, often reaching states of deep meditation (samadhi). A true Yogi lives unaffected by worldly dualities, maintaining equanimity and performing duties without attachment to results, as described in the Bhagavad Gita. 

yogī

A male practitioner of yoga

yoginī

A female practitioner of yoga

Katha Upanishad

1. The Context: A young boy named Nachiketa, eager for truth, notices his father performing a ritual but giving away only weak, useless cows, a symbolic act of insincere sacrifice.

2. The Accusation: To save his father from the negative karma of this insincere act, Nachiketa asks, "To whom will you give me?" Irritated, his father answers, "I give you to Death!".

3. The Three Boons: Nachiketa travels to the abode of Yama. Because Yama is away for three days, the boy waits without food or water. Upon returning, Yama is impressed by this sacrifice and offers three boons.

   • First Boon: To return to his father and find him peaceful and calm.

   • Second Boon: To learn the secret fire ritual that leads to heaven.

   • Third Boon: The crucial question—to know what happens after death and the nature of the Self.

4. The Test and Teaching: Yama tries to tempt Nachiketa with vast wealth, celestial pleasures, and long life to avoid answering the third question. Nachiketa rejects them all as fleeting and temporary, proving his worth as a seeker.

5. The Core Teaching: Pleased, Yama teaches that the true Self (Atman) is unborn, undying, and identical to the Absolute Reality (Brahman). He explains that the goal of human life is to move from the temporary "pleasant" (preya) to the permanent "good" (shreya). 

Pancartha Bhasya

• 4th-6th century CE commentary on Pashupata Sutra.

• outlines the path to union with Shiva (Pashupati).

• yoga is the union of the self and the lord

• It is one of the foundational texts of the Lakulīśa-Pāśupata school, an ancient, dualistic Shaivite sect within Hinduism. 

• State of being connected with Siva

What are the four most common types of yoga by the 2nd millennium CE?

By the second millennium CE (1000–2000 CE), particularly in the context of classical Hindu philosophy the four most common types of yoga are Karma (action) , Bhakti (devotion), Jnana (knowledge), and Raja (royal path).

What is Hatha Yoga and what does it mean?

• a foundational, slow-paced style that uses physical postures (asanas), breathwork (pranayama), and meditation to balance body and mind, often holding poses for several breaths.

• "Haṭha" literally translates to "force" or "willful," indicating an active, disciplined practice to control vital energy (prana).

• Preparation for Higher Yoga: Historically, Hatha Yoga was seen as a foundational system to prepare the body and mind for the more subtle practices of Raja Yoga (royal yoga). 

Mantra yoga

uses the repetition of sacred sounds (mantras) to focus the mind, calm the nervous system, and achieve higher states of consciousness or union with the divine.

• reciting mantras or incantations associated with deities

Laya Yoga

"dissolution" or "absorption" of the individual consciousness (ego) into the Supreme Consciousness. Often referred to as the "yoga of absorption" or "yoga of dissolution," it is closely related to Kundalini yoga, as it utilizes specific techniques to awaken the Kundalini energy at the base of the spine and guide it upward through the chakras. 

• Goal: The ultimate goal is Samadhi (a state of deep, blissful absorption) or spiritual liberation (moksha), where the practitioner is absorbed in the Divine.

• Methodology: Unlike Hatha Yoga, which often focuses on physical postures, Laya Yoga works by controlling prana (vital energy) to bring the mind under control, causing it to merge into the source.

Raja yoga

the "Royal Path" or "Best Yoga,"

self-control through meditation, leading to Samadhi (enlightenment) by mastering the inner self, incorporating the Eight Limbs of Yoga as described by Patanjali. It's considered the "king of yogas" because it integrates other paths (Jnana, Bhakti, Karma) and aims for complete mastery over the mind, body, and spirit, achieving union with the Divine. 

Astanga

refers to the classical, eight-fold path of yoga outlined by the sage Patanjali in the Yoga Sutras (compiled c. 200 CE). It is a holistic system designed to purify the body and mind, ultimately leading to spiritual liberation (moksha) or self-realization (samadhi). 

• Yama (Ethical Restraints): Social ethics: Non-violence (Ahimsa), Truthfulness (Satya), Non-stealing (Asteya), Chastity/Sexual Restraint (Brahmacharya), Non-covetousness (Aparigraha).

• Niyama (Personal Disciplines): Internal observances: Purity (Saucha), Contentment (Santosha), Discipline/Austerity (Tapas), Self-study (Svadhyaya), Surrender to God (Ishvara Pranidhana).

• Asana (Postures)

• Pranayama (Breath Control)

• Pratyahara (Withdrawal of Senses

• Dharana (Concentration)

• Dhyana (Meditation)

• Samadhi (Absorption/Union)

What are the limbs/auxiliaries of yoga?

1. Yamas (Moral Disciplines/Restraints): Ethical standards focusing on behavior toward others.

   • Ahimsa: Non-violence, non-harming.

   • Satya: Truthfulness, non-falsehood.

   • Asteya: Non-stealing.

   • Brahmacharya: Sexual restraint, moderation.

   • Aparigraha: Non-avarice, non-possessiveness.

2. Niyamas (Observances/Self-Discipline): Virtuous habits for self-regulation.

   • Shaucha: Purity, cleanliness of mind and body.

   • Santosha: Contentment, acceptance.

   • Tapas: Persistence, perseverance, self-discipline.

   • Svadhyaya: Study of self, self-reflection.

   • Ishvarapranidhana: Contemplation/surrender to a higher power or true self.

3. Āsana (Postures): Physical postures practiced for stability, strength, and comfort, originally designed for sustained meditation.

4. Prāṇāyāma (Breath Control): Regulation of breath to control life-force energy.

5. Pratyāhāra (Withdrawal of the Senses): Retracting sensory experience from external objects to focus internally.

6. Dhāraṇā (Concentration): One-pointed focus of the mind.

7. Dhyāna (Meditation): Uninterrupted flow of concentration, or meditation.

8. Samādhi (Absorption): A state of bliss, ecstasy, or union with the divine. 

What are the Eight Limbs of Patanjali (Classical Yoga) 

The outer limbs:

1. Yama (Ethical Restraints): How we relate to the world.

• Ahimsa: Non-violence.

• Satya: Truthfulness.

• Asteya: Non-stealing.

• Brahmacharya: Wise use of energy/moderation.

• Aparigraha: Non-attachment/non-possessiveness.

2. Niyama (Personal Observances): Our inner disciplines.

• Saucha: Cleanliness/purity.

• Santosha: Contentment.

• Tapas: Self-discipline/ardor.

• Svadhyaya: Self-study/scriptural study.

• Ishvara Pranidhana: Surrender to a higher power. 

The Inner Limbs (Body & Breath)
3. Asana (Posture): Physical postures to prepare the body.
4. Pranayama (Breath Control): Regulating the life force/breath. 

The Subtle Limbs (Mind & Consciousness)
5. Pratyahara (Sense Withdrawal): Turning awareness inward, away from external stimuli.
6. Dharana (Concentration): Focusing the mind on a single point.
7. Dhyana (Meditation): Unbroken flow of concentration, a state of effortless focus.
8. Samadhi (Absorption/Enlightenment): A state of profound spiritual absorption and union with the divine. 

angas

Angas (Sanskrit for "limbs," "parts," or "components") refer to the essential steps, disciplines, or branches required for spiritual development, self-realization, and the proper understanding of sacred texts. The most prominent usage is in Patanjali’s "Ashtanga Yoga," which outlines eight limbs of practice. 

Śramaṇas

Śramaṇas (or shramanas “strivers”) were wandering, ascetic, and non-Vedic seekers in ancient India who renounced worldly life to pursue spiritual liberation (moksha) through self-discipline, austerity (tapas), and meditation. Appearing around 800-600 BCE, they challenged the authority of the Vedas and the Brahmin priesthood, forming heterodox movements like Jainism and Buddhism to find spiritual liberation (moksha).

• emphasized self-discipline, meditation, and concepts like samsara (cycle of rebirth) and karma, contrasting with Brahmanical Hinduism's focus on rituals and caste. 

• Meaning: "One who strives," "toil," or "ascetic".

dhyanayoga in the Mahabharata

“yoga by means of meditation”

the path to self-realization and union with the Supreme through intense, disciplined, and focused meditation (dhyana), as taught by Lord Krishna to Arjuna. 

• The Goal: The aim of Dhyana Yoga is to quiet the turbulent, "restless" mind and gain complete mastery over it, enabling the practitioner (yogi) to experience the Divine.

• The Process: Krishna outlines that the mind, like a lamp in a windless place, should be made steady and fixed on the Divine. It involves:

  • Solitude and Discipline: Practicing in a secluded place (ekaki) while regulating eating, sleeping, and recreation.

  • Posture and Control: Sitting with the body, neck, and head erect, focusing the gaze between the eyebrows, and controlling the senses.

  • Inner Focus: Withdrawing from external objects and meditating on the Supreme with one-pointed concentration.

• In the context of the eight limbs of yoga (Ashtanga Yoga) defined by Patanjali, Dhyana is the seventh step, directly following Dharana (concentration) and preceding Samadhi (enlightenment or absorption). 

Tapas

Tapas (from Sanskrit tap, meaning "to heat" or "burn") refers to inner fire, discipline, and austerity used for spiritual purification, burning away impurities, and forging self-transformation, often through endurance, meditation, or controlled hardship, leading to spiritual growth and liberation (moksha).

• Inner Fire: It's the transformative energy that "burns" away negative habits, ego, and karmic impurities, fostering spiritual insight and clarity.

• Discipline & Endurance: Practicing beyond comfort, enduring challenges (physical postures, fasting, silence), and cultivating willpower to meet life's struggles fiercely but lovingly.

Where did the earliest known definition of yoga come from?

• The Rig Veda (c. 1500–1000 BCE): The term first appears to describe the "yoking" or harnessing of horses to a chariot, which later expanded to symbolize the discipline of focusing the mind.

• Katha Upanishad (c. 5th–3rd Century BCE): This is widely considered to contain the first explicit definition of yoga as a disciplined, meditative practice. It defines yoga as the "steady control of the senses" along with the cessation of mental activity.

What are the earliest definitions of yoga?

• The Rig Veda (c. 1500–1000 BCE): The term first appears to describe the "yoking" or harnessing of horses to a chariot, which later expanded to symbolize the discipline of focusing the mind.

• Katha Upanishad (c. 5th–3rd Century BCE): This is widely considered to contain the first explicit definition of yoga as a disciplined, meditative practice. It defines yoga as the "steady control of the senses" along with the cessation of mental activity.

• The Bhagavad Gita (c. 500–200 BCE): Defines yoga with more practical application, such as "skill in action" and "equanimity of mind".

• Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras (c. 2nd Century BCE – 4th Century CE): While not the earliest mention, this text is considered the first systematic presentation of yoga, defining it as yogas citta-vritti-nirodhah—"the cessation of the fluctuations of the mind". 

How is yoga defined in the Katha Upanishad?

the steady control and holding of the senses, leading to the stilling of the mind and intellect, which results in a supreme, unitive state of self-realization and liberation. It's a disciplined path to transcend the senses to achieve unity between the individual self (Atman) and the universal reality (Brahman).

Moksadharma

• Definition: Moksha means "release" or "freedom" from the bondage of karma and the illusions of the material world. It is the ultimate goal, often described as the fourth purushartha (goal) following Dharma (righteousness), Artha (prosperity), and Kama (pleasure).

• The Context: It is the core subject matter of the Mokshadharma Parva, which discusses various forms of spirituality, including devotion, yoga, meditation, and renunciation.

• The Philosophy: It involves moving beyond dualities like pleasure and pain, joy and sorrow, and realizing the true nature of the self (Atman) as one with the Supreme Soul (Brahman or Paramatma). 

• The Ultimate Goal: Moksha is the goal of all yoga practice—Karma Yoga (selfless action), Bhakti Yoga (devotion), Jnana Yoga (knowledge), and Raja Yoga (meditation).

yoga of going

• warrior linking themselves to heaven, so in death they’re in a heavenly abode

• refers to the process of letting go of attachments, control, and past limitations to move forward in personal growth and self-realization. It is the practice of surrendering to the natural flow of life, releasing what no longer serves you (physical, mental, or emotional), and embracing the present moment to move toward a higher state of consciousness. 

• Savasana (Corpse Pose): The ultimate "yoga of going." It requires letting go of all muscular tension, control, and mental activity, allowing the body to feel "empty" and still.

yoga of knowing

• liberation

• Jnana Yoga (or Gyana Yoga), which translates to the "path of wisdom" or "path of knowledge". It is one of the four main classical paths of yoga—alongside Bhakti (devotion), Karma (action), and Raja (meditation)—designed to lead to self-realization and liberation (moksha). 

• Unlike other paths that may use physical postures (asana) or devotional rituals, Jnana Yoga is an inward-directed, intellectual, and philosophical approach that uses the mind to inquire into its own nature, aiming to transcend the ego and realize the oneness of the individual self (Atman) with the universal consciousness (Brahman). 

yoga of doing

"yoga of doing" is primarily known as Karma Yoga, one of the four main paths to liberation (moksha), alongside Bhakti (devotion), Jnana (knowledge), and Raja (meditation). It is defined as the path of selfless action, where one performs their duty (dharma) without attachment to the results, offering all actions to the divine. 

• "Skill in Action": The Bhagavad Gita defines yoga as "skill in action" (yogah karmasu kaushalam), meaning acting with calmness, balance, and efficiency without emotional turmoil.

• Practicing (poses)

The Noble Eightfold Path of Buddhism

1. Wisdom (Prajna) & The Yogic Mindset

• Right View (Sammā Diṭṭhi): Understanding the Four Noble Truths—that suffering exists, has a cause, and can be ended. In yoga, this corresponds to Jnana (knowledge) or discernment (Viveka), recognizing reality versus illusion.

• Right Resolve/Intention (Sammā Saṅkappa): A commitment to renunciation, non-ill will, and harmlessness. This aligns with Yamas and Niyamas (restraints and observances), such as Ahimsa (non-violence) and Satya (truthfulness). 

2. Ethical Conduct (Sīla) & The Yamas/Niyamas

• Right Speech (Sammā Vācā): Abstaining from lying, gossip, and harsh speech. This is a direct application of the Yama of Satya (truthfulness) and a subset of Saucha (purity) in speech.

• Right Action (Sammā Kammanta): Refraining from killing, stealing, and sexual misconduct. This corresponds closely to the Yamas: Ahimsa (non-violence) and Asteya (non-stealing).

• Right Livelihood (Sammā Ājīva): Earning a living without causing harm to others (not trading in weapons, poisons, etc.). This encourages applying ethical principles to everyday life, or "yoga off the mat". 

3. Mental Discipline (Samādhi) & The Inner Limbs

• Right Effort (Sammā Vāyāma): Diligently cultivating wholesome mental states and letting go of unwholesome ones. In yoga, this is similar to Tapas (discipline) and the effort to master the mind (Citta Vritti Nirodhah).

• Right Mindfulness (Sammā Sati): Constant awareness of body, feelings, mind, and phenomena. This correlates to Pratyahara (sensory withdrawal) and the witness consciousness in yoga.

• Right Concentration (Sammā Samādhi): The development of one-pointedness of mind (ekaggata) through meditation. This corresponds directly to Dharana (concentration) and Dhyana (meditation), leading to the final state of Samadhi. 

What is the fourfold system of yoga in the Sharngadhara Paddhati?

1. Asana (Postures)

2. Pranayama (Breath control)

3. Dhyana (Meditation)

4. Samadhi (Absorption/Union) 

Yoga in Vedic and early Buddhist/Jain sources

Early Upanishads (circa 7th-1st century BCE)

Renunciant ascetics (śramaṇas, “strivers”), ascetic practices (tapas, “heat/austerities”)

Yoga in the Mahābhārata (including the Bhagavadgītā)

Circa 3rd century BCE - 3rd century CE

defines yoga as diverse paths (Karma, Bhakti, Jñāna, Dhyāna) to spiritual liberation, emphasizing selfless action (Karma Yoga), devotion (Bhakti Yoga), knowledge (Jñāna Yoga), and meditation (Dhyāna Yoga) for mental focus and inner peace, turning everyday life into spiritual practice through non-attachment to results and harmony with duty, as taught by Krishna to Arjuna. 

Patañjali’s yoga system

Patañjali’s Yogasūtra (=Pātañjalayogaśāstra), circa 325-425 CE

• centered on the eight-limbed path (Ashtanga Yoga) to achieve liberation (kaivalya) by stilling the mind (chitta vritti nirodha), leading to pure consciousness (purusha) distinct from nature (prakriti), with the limbs including ethical disciplines (yama, niyama), physical practice (asana, pranayama, pratyahara), and contemplative stages (dharana, dhyana, samadhi).

Yogācāra Buddhism

circa 3rd-4th century CE onward

a major Mahāyāna Buddhist tradition focusing on the mind, consciousness, and perception, also known as the "Mind-Only" (Cittamātra) school, emphasizing that experience is a mental construction, not an external reality, to achieve liberation.

Pantajalayogasasta

Patanjali's Yoga Sutras (or Yoga Shastra) is a foundational Sanskrit text, compiled by the sage Patanjali (c. 200-400 CE), presenting a systematic guide to yoga as a path to liberation (Kaivalya) by mastering the mind and achieving inner stillness (Samadhi) through the practice of Ashtanga (Eight-Limbed Yoga).

Jain systems of yoga

8th century CE onward

• In Jainism, yoga means the soul's union with the infinite, achieved through inner purification, not just physical postures, although meditative postures (like Kayotsarga) are used.

• Focus on Karma: The goal is to stop the influx of new karma (asrava) and shed existing karma (nirjara) through intense inner work, leading to freedom from the cycle of rebirth.

• Key Practices: Meditation (dhyāna), contemplation (bhāvanā), concentration (samādhi), and the cultivation of virtues like compassion and equanimity. 

What is the timeline of yoga?

• Vedic Period (c. 1500–500 BCE): The Rigveda, the oldest Hindu scripture, contains early references to yoga practices like breath control and meditation, forming spiritual foundations.

• Upanishadic Period (c. 800–200 BCE): Texts like the Upanishads develop deeper philosophical concepts of self-realization, meditation, and internal focus

• Classical Period (c. 200 BCE–500 CE): Patanjali compiles the Yoga Sutras, defining the eight limbs of yoga (Ashtanga Yoga) as a systematic path to enlightenment

• Post-Classical Period (c. 500–1700 CE): Tantric traditions emerge, emphasizing purification and the body as a vehicle for spiritual growth, leading to the development of Hatha Yoga

• Modern Period (1800s–Present): Yoga arrives in the West, notably with Swami Vivekananda (1893), and evolves into diverse physical practices, with Hatha yoga becoming popular for health and wellness

Tantric traditions

Circa 5th century CE onward

using practices like breathwork (pranayama), meditation, mantras, rituals (yantras), and specific postures (asanas) to awaken energy (Kundalini) and achieve liberation, viewing the mundane (including sexuality) as a path to the sacred, not separate from it, often rooted in Shaktism/Shaivism (Hinduism) or Buddhism. 

• The goal: to achieve spiritual liberation (moksha) and enlightenment by awakening dormant divine energy (Kundalini) and uniting opposing forces (like Shiva/Shakti) within the self.

• sometimes also to attain supernatural powers or proximity to a deity

Kundalini in Tantric Yoga

Kundalini is defined as a form of divine, primal feminine energy (Shakti) that lies dormant, coiled three-and-a-half times like a serpent at the base of the spine (the Muladhara chakra). It represents the ultimate life force, creative potential, and consciousness within an individual. Its awakening and ascent through the body's chakras via the Sushumna nadi (central energy channel) leads to profound spiritual awakening, self-realization, and expanded consciousness, activated through breathwork (pranayama), mantras, and postures (asanas). 

• Coiled Energy: From the Sanskrit word kundal, meaning "coiled," it's the divine feminine energy (Shakti) and creative potential within everyone, sleeping at the spine's base.

• The Awakening: Practices aim to "uncoil" this energy, causing it to rise up the spine through the seven chakras (energy centers).

• The Journey: As it rises, it pierces each chakra, activating them and leading to higher states of awareness, compassion, and spiritual connection.

• Ultimate Goal: Reaching the crown chakra (Sahasrara) results in a profound transformation, uniting individual consciousness with universal consciousness, bringing bliss and divine knowledge.

Haṭhayoga and Nāth Yogīs

End of 1st millennium CE onward; formalized system in circa 13th century;

“Classical” Haṭhayoga synthesis c. 15th century

Yoga Upanishads

Circa 9th - 13th centuries but then expanded late

Mughal period

6th - 19th century

Increasingly formalized ascetic orders, including some militarized groups of yogis

• Emperor Akbar (r. 1556–1605) and his successor Jahangir (r. 1605–1627) facilitated the study of yoga, commissioning Persian translations of Sanskrit texts like the Yoga Sutras and the Amritakunda

• Militarized Yogis: The period saw the rise of militant ascetics, such as the Sannyāsī warriors, who, although often engaged in violent disputes over resources, were sometimes supported or mediated by Mughal authorities. 

Colonialism in India

Colonial encounters starting in 15th century, increasing travelers into 17th century;

Major period of European expansion and domination: 18th-20th centuries

“Modern” Yoga

19th century – present

Timeline of important yogic texts

• Vedic Period (c. 1500-500 BCE): Foundational concepts of meditation and ritual appear in the Vedas, especially the Rig Veda, with oral traditions forming the basis.

• Upanishadic Period (c. 800-400 BCE): Texts like the Upanishads shift focus to philosophical inquiry, self-realization, and the nature of reality (Brahman). 

  • Chandogya upanishads (700-500 BCE)

  • Katha upanishad (3rd century BCE)

• Classical Era (c. 200 BCE - 500 CE)

  • Bhagavad Gita (c. 400 BCE): Part of the Mahabharata epic, it outlines different yogic paths (Karma, Bhakti, Jnana).

  • Yoga Sutras of Patanjali (c. 200 CE): A foundational text codifying "Classical Yoga" (Raja Yoga) and the Eight Limbs of Yoga

• Post-Classical & Medieval Period (c. 600 - 1800 CE)

  • Hatha Yoga Pradipika (c. 15th Century CE): Focuses on physical techniques (asanas, pranayama, shatkarmas) to prepare the body for deeper meditation

• Modern Era (1800s - Present)

  • 1893 Parliament of Religions: Introduction of yoga to the West,

Indus Valley Civilization (IVC

Sites in modern day Pakistan excavated in the 1920s by the British Archeological Survey of India , led by Sir John Marshall and conducted by D.R. Sahni and R.D. Banerjee

• At its peak circa 2200-1900 BCE

• Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa

• uniform material culture, incl. streets, sewers, buildings

• domesticated animals

• many metals (but no iron)

• grain storage

• wheeled transport

• “Great Bath”

• Proto Siva

The aśvamedha

a Vedic horse sacrifice ritual performed by ancient Indian kings to demonstrate their imperial sovereignty and claim dominion over their territory. The ceremony involved releasing a consecrated horse to roam freely for a year, protected by the king's warriors. If the horse was not captured or challenged, it was brought back to the capital, where it was sacrificed in a large ceremony to legitimize the king's power and grant prosperity to his kingdom.

Atma Samyama Yoga

the yoga of self-restraint and meditation, primarily described in Chapter 6 of the Bhagavad Gita, focusing on mastering the mind and senses through disciplined control (Samyama) to achieve union with the Self (Atma), leading to inner peace, spiritual growth, and liberation (moksha). It involves detaching from desire, cultivating equanimity, and establishing the mind firmly in the Self through focused practice, removing mental impurities like rajas and tamas. 

Abhyasayoga

the "Yoga of Practice," is the principle of consistent, dedicated, and uninterrupted effort towards a specific goal, especially achieving mental stability (nirodha) as described in Patanjali's Yoga Sutras, emphasizing steady application in asana, pranayama, meditation, and daily life, working alongside Vairagya (detachment) to master the mind and attain inner peace. It's about showing up repeatedly, even through failure, to cultivate discipline and transform consciousness. 

Sparsayoga

the term Sparśa (Sanskrit for "touch," "contact," or "sensation")

• Definition: It is the coming together of three factors: a sense organ, a sense object, and sense consciousness. It is the foundation of sensory experience.

• Examples:

  • Tactile Touch: The skin (sense organ) touching a soft cloth (object), resulting in the tactile awareness (consciousness) of softness.

  • Visual Contact: The eye (organ) seeing a flower (object), creating visual consciousness (perception).

Bhavayoga

Bhāva (often referenced as Bhava or Bhav) refers to a state of being, emotional attitude, or spiritual disposition. While not always used as the compound "Bhavayoga," the cultivation of Bhava is central to Bhakti Yoga, where it signifies the deep, loving, and intentional attitude a devotee adopts toward the Divine. It is the inner, subjective feeling that converts routine actions into spiritual practice. 

abhavayoga

"yoga of negation" or "void yoga," is a specialized, advanced form of meditation within Hindu philosophy (specifically Shaiva traditions) and classical yoga, aimed at the dissolution of the mind and the cessation of worldly perceptions. It is described as a meditative state where the practitioner focuses on the Self (Atman) as void, devoid of all qualities and false appearances, leading to liberation from the cycle of birth and death (Samsara). 

• The Goal: The purpose is to move beyond the bhāva (worldly existence/phenomenal world) to a state of abhāva (non-existence of the phenomenal), thus achieving a state of absolute abstraction or the Void.

• Methodology: The yogi meditates on their own soul as a void and negates all external appearances, focusing on the Self as separate from the body and the world. It often involves withdrawing life force from the senses and concentrating on the inner Self.

Mahayoga

(Great Yoga) in Hinduism and Yoga traditions signifies the highest, most complete form of spiritual realization, often involving a guru's grace (Shaktipat) to awaken Kundalini, transcend the ego, and achieve union with the Supreme (Brahman or God), moving beyond mere physical or mental practices to effortless, blissful self-realization and a pure, transformed experience of reality.

What is the chariot and horse metaphor and what text does it originate from?

• Text: Katha Upanishad

• Key Aspects of the Chariot Metaphor (Ratha Kalpana):

  • The Chariot: Represents the human body.

  • The Horses: Represent the five senses (indriyas), which can be wild if uncontrolled.

  • The Reins: Represent the mind (manas), which controls the senses.

  • The Charioteer: Represents the intellect (buddhi) or wisdom.

  • The Rider/Passenger: Represents the Atman or the True Self. 

The allegory teaches that by using the intellect (charioteer) to control the mind (reins), the senses (horses) are mastered, allowing the Self (rider) to reach the ultimate goal. 

*also referenced in the Bhagavadgita

What does the chariot and horse allegory mean?

• The Chariot: Represents the physical body.

• The Five Horses: Symbolize the five senses (sight, hearing, taste, touch, smell).

• The Reins: Represent the mind (manas), which connects the driver to the horses.

• The Driver (Charioteer): Symbolizes the intellect (buddhi) or wisdom.

• The Passenger (Rider): Represents the Soul (Atman) or the true self.

• The Road: Represents the objects of desire or external triggers. 

• The Goal of Yoga: The purpose is to repair the "carriage" (body), tame the "horses" (emotions/senses), and sober the "driver" (mind) so the "passenger" (soul) can reach its destination of enlightenment or God.

• Uncontrolled vs. Controlled: If the intellect is weak and the mind is uncontrolled, the senses (horses) run wild, leading to suffering and ignorance. A well-trained, disciplined mind (reins) used by a strong intellect (driver) leads to self-mastery.

• Surrender to Higher Wisdom: In the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna is often depicted as the charioteer. This represents the supreme soul guiding the individual's soul (Arjuna) on the right path, highlighting the need to trust in divine wisdom rather than base desires.

How is yoga described in the Katha Upanisad?

"steady control of the senses”

• The Chariot Metaphor: The body is a chariot, the intellect (buddhi) the charioteer, the mind (manas) the reins, and the senses the horses; yoga involves controlling these horses (senses) with the reins (mind) to reach the Self (owner).

How is yoga described in the Bhagavadgita?

"union" with the divine, defined as equanimity of mind, skill in action (Karma Yoga), and detachment from sorrow, encompassing paths like selfless work, devotion (Bhakti Yoga), knowledge (Jnana Yoga), and meditation (Dhyana Yoga) to achieve spiritual liberation, not just physical postures. Krishna teaches that yoga is about controlling the senses and mind, acting righteously without attachment to results, and cultivating inner balance to connect with the Supreme. 

• eternal soul separate from the body

• Karma yoga (selfless action w/o attachment to results)

How is yoga described in the Mahabharata?

No knowledge equal to samkhya and no power is equal to yoga

Yoga in the Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad

• The Process of Meditation (Chapter 2): The text provides specific guidance, urging the seeker to hold the body in a straight posture, with the chest, neck, and head erect, and to withdraw the senses and mind into the heart.

• Use of Om (Oṁ): It describes using the syllable Oṁ as a "meditation tool" to realize the Divine within, comparing the body to a lower friction-stick and Oṁ to the upper, which, when churned through meditation, reveals the self-luminous Lord.

• Ideal Environment: The Upaniṣad recommends practicing yoga in a clean, quiet spot—a hidden, wind-protected cave or a place that is level, pure, and free from pebbles, fire, and noise, and pleasing to the mind.

• Signs of Progress: The text lists early signs of success in yoga, including lightness of body, health, absence of desire, clear complexion, a pleasant voice, and a sweet odor.

• Goal of Yoga: The ultimate goal is the cessation of the illusion of phenomena, liberation from the cycle of birth and death (mokṣa), and achieving oneness with the non-dual Atman.

• Role of Bhakti: It introduces the importance of deep devotion (bhakti) to God (specifically Rudra-Shiva) as a necessary component for the knowledge of Brahman to be revealed. 

• Mist, smoke, sun, wind, fire, fireflies, lighting, crystal moon

Siddhis

material, paranormal, supernatural, or magical powers, abilities, and attainments that are the products of advanced yogic advancement. The word translates directly to "perfection," "accomplishment," or "success". These abilities are considered a by-product of rigorous sādhana (spiritual practice), meditation, and yoga. 

Ascetic Withdrawal vs. Social Engagement

1. Social Engagement (Pravritti Marga / Karma Yoga)

This path emphasizes activity, duty, and engagement with the world to achieve spiritual growth, often associated with the life of a householder (grihastha). 

• Definition: Active participation in worldly affairs, family life, and societal duties (svadharma).

• Purpose: To gain experience, fulfill karma, and contribute to society, with the long-term goal of purifying the mind (chitta suddhi).

• Key Concept (Karma Yoga): The Bhagavad Gita advocates for "renunciation in action." This means engaging in work without desiring its fruits, or acting without the egoistic sense of "I am the doer".

• Goal: To live in the world while being detached from it, treating duties as an offering to the Divine. 

2. Ascetic Withdrawal (Nivritti Marga / Sannyasa) 

This path emphasizes moving away from the sensory world, social roles, and material desires to pursue direct knowledge of the Self. 

• Definition: The systematic withdrawal from worldly activities, possessions, and relationships.

• Purpose: To eliminate desires (vasanas) and attachment to sense objects to achieve rapid spiritual liberation.

• Key Features: Renunciation (sannyasa), wandering (parivrajaka), meditation, and sometimes strict physical austerities (tapas) to subdue the ego.

• The "Holy Fool" or Wanderer: In many traditions, this involves giving up all social status and living on alms, completely severing ties to the previous life. 

Householder

• The ideal religious person within Vedic theology — a married householder, devoted to study and rites, and producing sons.

• Daughters bring gried, but a son is in the higher heaven

• The fully complete person includes the father, the mother, and the son.

• Only married men accompanied by his wife can perform a sacrifice.

• Triple debt (studentship to seer, sacrifice to the gods, and offspring to the fathers)

• DHARMA

Ascetic Withdrawal

systematic, voluntary, and often intense renunciation of worldly pleasures, material possessions, and social entanglements to purify the body and soul for a higher spiritual or, at times, philosophical goal. It is fundamentally a process of "negative" action—a conscious abstention, subtraction, or "breaking off" of worldly relations—designed to foster inner peace, self-mastery, and ultimate liberation or salvation. 

• Fasting: A core practice involving limiting food intake, eating only one meal a day, or, in extreme cases, abstaining from food and water.

• Celibacy: Refraining from sexual activity to conserve energy, control bodily desires, and focus entirely on spiritual pursuits.

• Frugal Living: Adopting a life of voluntary poverty, owning minimal or no possessions, and wearing simple clothing. 

• Emphasized in the upanishads

• MOKSHA

The story of the female ascetic Sulabhā and King Janaka

• The Encounter: Sulabhā, a highly learned Brahmavadinī (seeker of Brahman) who had renounced worldly life, hears that King Janaka of Mithila claims to have achieved liberation (moksha) while still living as a householder and ruling his kingdom.

• The Test: Doubting his absolute liberation, Sulabhā uses her yogic powers to assume a beautiful form, travels to his court, and, using her yogic ability, enters his mind/understanding internally to examine his spiritual state.

• Janaka's Reaction: Janaka feels insulted that a woman has challenged him and entered his mind. He responds with annoyance, asking who she is, whose she is, and questioning her actions based on traditional social roles, even accusing her of improper behavior for an ascetic.

• The Debate:

  • Janaka's Position: He argues that he is a "philosopher king" (or Jivanmukta)—a King who is liberated while still alive—and that he has attained true wisdom, is free from attachment, and is superior to renouncers.

  • Sulabhā's Argument: She argues that the Atman (Soul/Self) is not gendered and that true liberation is not dependent on gender or social roles. She points out that by reacting with anger and arrogance to her presence, Janaka shows he is not truly free from duality (like/dislike, friend/enemy) and is therefore "midway" between bondage and liberation.

• The Outcome: Sulabhā logically defeats Janaka, who, unable to answer her arguments, becomes silent. Bhishma concludes that Sulabhā's words were "more beautiful than her person" and that she successfully established her point. 

Defense of householder life

• without a lineage, forefathers are left without offerings and are reduced to a single strand

• nothing equals to offspring

• without fulfilling the triple debts, one will not attain moksha

Defense of ascetic way of life

The Buddha renunciates at a young age because he States that by performing a life of householding, one is pushing aside their ascetic duties and can die before they ever get to practice ascetism.

• Death will not wait for your duties to be fulfilled

Compromise between ascetic and householder life

• ascetic modes of life are best suited at an older age (refers to asrama system of stages of life) when one has been able to fulfill their domestic duties

• Student, householder, forest dweller, renunciant

• Householder stage is seen as most important for all other asrama’s survival

Sankara

Adi Shankara (c. 700–750 CE) was an 8th-century Indian Vedic scholar, philosopher, and saint who is credited with reviving Hinduism and consolidating the non-dualist philosophy of Advaita Vedanta.

• Shankara is considered one of the greatest masters of Jnana Yoga (the yoga of knowledge and wisdom).

Yoga in the Mahābhārata

• Wide diversity of views on and contexts for yoga

• tapas -- ascetic “heat,” austerity, asceticism

• Pursuit of boons, powers (special weapons, flying ability, etc.)

• Often associated with techniques for dying and linked to light

• Power to enter/possess another’s body; to ‘link’ oneself with another E.g., Sulabhā and Janaka story

• Yoga practice generally presented as having four main aspects:

  • moral conduct

  • diet, posture and surroundings

  • breath control

  • withdrawal of the senses, concentration and meditatio

Bhishma’s instructions to Yudhisthira on the battlefield

delivered while lying on his "bed of arrows" (Sharshaiya) after the 10th day of the Kurukshetra war, focused on Raja Dharma (duties of a king), Moksha Dharma (dharma for liberation), and Daan Dharma (dharma of giving). These instructions, which took place over 58 days before his death, form the Shanti Parva and Anushasan Parva of the Mahabharata. 

Padmasana

“lotus seat”

Purusharthas

the four proper aims or goals of human life:

• Dharma: righteousness, ethics

• Artha: prosperity, material well-being

• Kama: pleasure, love, desire

• Moksha: liberation, spiritual freedom

bhadrasana

"Gracious Pose" or "Auspicious Seat,"

• also known as butterfly seat

samyoga

union, or association between two fundamental, distinct realities: Purusha (unchanging consciousness or spirit) and Prakriti (material world, nature, and the mind). 

• Definition: Literally, it means "joining together," "union," or "contact".

• The Cause of Suffering (Duhkha): In Yoga Sutra 2.17, Samyoga is identified as the "union" of the seer (Purusha) and the seen (Prakriti). This false identification causes the pure consciousness to feel bound to the material world, resulting in suffering.

• Mistaken Identity: It is the illusion that the true Self (Purusha) is the same as the mind, body, and emotions (Prakriti).

• Goal of Yoga (Viyoga): The goal of yoga is to reverse this process, often called Viyoga (disjunction or separation), where the Purusha realizes its distinct, independent nature from Prakriti.

Pasupatayoga

an ancient, foundational path in Shaivism, focusing on liberation from suffering (pashu, the soul bound by ignorance) through devotion to Shiva (Pati, the Lord), aiming for union (Sayujya) with the divine, not just self-realization. It involves intense ascetic practices, rituals (like smearing ashes), meditation, and earning Shiva's grace, fasting, recitations, and breath control (pranayama)

veda

the oldest sacred texts in Hinduism, meaning "knowledge," which was revealed and heard by ancient sages

The Four Vedas

• Rigveda: The oldest Veda, containing hymns and verses praising various gods, focusing on cosmology and early religious ideas.

• Yajurveda: Contains sacrificial formulas and prose explanations for performing rituals.

• Sāmaveda: Focuses on melodies and chants, adapting Rigvedic verses for musical recitation during rituals.

• Atharvaveda: Includes spells, incantations, charms for health, protection, and daily life. 

Narayana

a primary form of Lord Vishnu, revered in Hinduism as the Supreme Being, the Ultimate Reality (Brahman), and the primordial person responsible for the creation, preservation, and dissolution of the universe. He is considered the "Guru of the Universe" and the inner Self (Antaryami) present in all beings. 

Paramaisvara

"Supreme Lord" or "Supreme Being," a title for the ultimate reality, but its specific deity depends on the sect: Vaishnavites see Vishnu, Shaivites see Shiva as Parameshvara

bala

primarily refers to strength or power

• the power to break from all bondage

vairagya

detachment or dispassion

• indifference to worldly pleasures and pains, essential for achieving moksha (liberation) by turning focus inward to the Self (Atman) rather than outward to temporary material pursuits

Books 1-5 of the Mahabharata

the growing rivalry between the Pandavas and Kauravas, the loss of their kingdom through gambling (dice-game), their 13 year long forest exile, and the final failed negotiations for peace before the war. 

Books 6-10 of the Mahabharata

Kurukshetra War

• Arjuna falters on the battlefield

• the dialogue between Arjuna and Krishna (Bhagavadgita)

• Kauravas kill the Pandavas, but not the brothers

Books 11-18 in the Mahabharata

• Pandavas win the war

• Yudhisthira becomes the king but feels immense guilt following the war, especially after discovering his unknown brother, Karna (from the sun), was slain by the Pandavas.

• Bhishma on his deathbed of arrows teaches Yudhisthira about yoga

• Yudhisthira renounces the thrown

Dharma

Dharma is the ethical, moral, and cosmic principle of "right conduct," encompassing duties, laws, virtues, and the "righteous way of living" that sustains individuals, society, and the universe.

• right action, right law, sacred duty, ethical propriety, virtue