PSYC 315 - Midterm 2

IQ testing

IQ testing

formal testing of one’s intelligence

• administered by trained professionals

• used to qualify for learning disabilities/access to supports, special education, gifted programs

• sometimes used in court cases/policy

how are IQ tests helpful?

• standardizes measures of learning

• predicts job performance, attitudes, health

• can be used for research (poverty, exposure to violence, pollution)

how are IQ tests dangerous?

• biased

• doesn’t measure all areas of intelligence

• attributes people to a number

• used for eugenics

group differences in IQ

• gender: women score worse on spatial intelligence

• racial: white people tend to score higher

  • social differences, family backgrounds, stereotype threat

stereotype threat

awareness of stereotypes towards your social groups impacting thoughts/performance

• women are not as good at math/science

• spending more time thinking about your performance which affects your focus

• Ambady et al (2001): when asian girls did math, they performed better when their asian identity was primed and worse when their girl identity

• Picho and Schamder (2018): teacher endorsement of stereotypes influence performance

entity theory

fixed mindset - intelligence and talent are fixed at birth

incremental theory

growth mindset - intelligence and talent can go up and down

• more likely to want to keep trying after failure

intelligence mindset

entity and incremental theory

• predicts response to challenges

• associated with academic outcomes

• China youth: more likely to think intelligence is due to innate ability

• US: more likely to think intelligence is due to mindset

how can we improve IQ testing?

• encourage growth mindset

• counteracting stereotype threat

• mindfulness training?

• dynamic assessment (learning potential assessment)

psychoanalytic theories - Freud

• how internal self interacts with environment

• born with powerful urges (sexual/aggressive desires), unconscious, exist within the id)

• biological drives in conflict with reality and societal expectations

• stage theory (each stage has a particular body zone where urges are centralized) - how conflicts are resolved determines development

• become fixated on regions if their developmental stages aren’t resolved

id

earliest/most primitive of mind structures - ruled by pleasure principle (achieving max gratification)

ego

resolves conflicts between id’s demand for immediate gratification and the restraints imposed by external world

superego

social norms and morals guiding the mind to avoid socially unacceptable behaviour

oral stage (0-18 months)

satisfaction through sucking, mouthing

• guided by the id, ego starts to come in at end and start to understanding reality

anal stage (18 months - 3 years)

toileting and controlling bowel movements

phallic stage (3-6 years)

intense sexual desires that need to be balanced

• superego turns on to bring morality principal

latency stage (6-12 years)

not any strong desires

genital (12+ years)

sexual desires are more adult like

legacy of psychosexual theory

• role of early experience

• importance of parent-child relationships

• unconscious motivations

• basis of many modern theories

Erickson’s Psychosocial Theory

psychoanalytic theory with more emphasis on the environment - focused on the ego

• social and environmental factors interact with ego to shape development

• also a stage theory:

  1. trust vs. mistrust (infancy - Boo seeing Sully as a monster)

  2. autonomy vs. shame/doubt (toddler - Nemo wanting his dad to stop coddling him)

  3. initiative vs. guilt (early childhood - Riley’s parents supporting her passions)

  4. industry vs. inferiority (middle childhood - Dash’s family giving him praise for his running)

  5. identity vs. role confusion (adolescent - minions not having secure identities)

  6. intimacy vs. isolation (young adult - Anna sacrificing herself for Elsa)

  7. generativity vs. stagnation (middle age - Andy passes his toys to the next generation)

  8. integrity vs. despair (old age - Carl going on an adventure in honour of his wife)

trust vs. mistrust

0 - 1 year - trusting that basic needs (food, affection) will be met

autonomy vs. shame/doubt

1-3 years- develop a sense of independence in many tasks

initiative vs. guilt

3-6 years - take initiative in some activities, may develop guilt when unsuccessful

industry vs. inferiority

7-11 years - develop self-confidence in abilities when competent or sense of inferiority when not

identity vs. role confusion

12-18 years: experiment with and develop identity and roles - resolving this crisis lies in adolescent’s interactions with others

• responses of significant others - learn how they are viewed socially

• mutual recognition between adolescent and society

intimacy vs. isolation

19-29 years - establish intimacy and relationships with others

generativity vs. stagnation

30-64 years - contribute to society and be part of a family

integrity vs. despair

65+ years - assess and make sense of life and meaning of contributions

Erickson’s legacy

• role of identity development

• lifespan development

Bronfenbrenner’s Biological Model

development as occurring within a complex system of relationships

• starts with child (biological dispositions influencing development)

• Mircosystem, Mesosystem, Exosystem, Macrosystem, Chronosystem

microsystem

immediate environment

• parents, siblings, peers

mesosystem

interactions between microsystems

• parent teacher conferences

exosystem

indirect environment, setting child does not come into immediate contact with but still influences experience

• includes mass media, parent’s workplace, extended family, police

macrosystem

cultural values, laws, customs, resources

• public policy, economic conditions of country, cultural beliefs

chronosystem

time period during which child is developing

legacy of Bronfenbrenner

• role of context - beyond immediate environment

• influence on policy

social development

changes in feelings, motivations, identity, personality, interactions, relationships with others - internal aspects of identity

self-concept in infancy

~18 months: pass rouge test

~2 years: recognize self in pictures, can label self with own name, can use category labels for self (boy vs. girl)

self-concept in early childhood

• can describe self

• focus on concrete, observable features (possessions, appearance, family and friends)

• unrealistically positive/really good at everything (egocentric)

self-concept in middle childhood

• more integrated, begin to refer to global characteristics (creative, smart, athletic)

• more realistic/balanced (bad at some things)

• evaluation of the self

• social comparisons

self-concept in adolescence

• nuanced view of self - complex, change with situations

• understand situational factors in behaviour

• more abstract/psychological - internal conceptions

• think about future/possible selves

• develop coherent/integrated self (organized)

• false self behaviour

• personal fable

• imaginary audience

advantages of a multifaceted personality

• helps cope with recognition of their faults and weaknesses

• ability to distinguish among one’s self, ideal self, feared self

false self behaviour

intentionally present false impressions to others - dating, with parents, not friends

• more likely to engage in it with less emotional support from parents and peers, low self-esteem, less satisfied with life

personality in adolescence

• environment becomes more important with age

• temperament and personality become increasingly stable as we grow older (spend more time in reinforcing environments)

• become less extraverted, more conscientious, agreeable, resilient, emotionally stable

• rate of change in personality begins to slow in your 20s

personal fable

belief that one’s own experience is unique and novel

imaginary audience

belief that everyone else is focused on you

influences on self concept

• cognitive development

• parents and family narratives (warmth/support = more positive)

• peers

• culture: individualistic (skills) vs. collectivist (relationships)

self-esteem

• can start assessing yourself around 8 years

• starts high, declines through childhood

• mixed findings during adolescence

• becomes stable at around 14 years (in regards to relative ranking within a group)

influences on self-esteem

• gender: girls more likely to decline

• race: black youth have higher, Asian-Americans have lowest

• approval of others (parents, peers, teachers)

• societal standards (physical attractiveness specifically)

• culture

all intersect with each other

consequences of low self-esteem

• more likely to lead to depression

• less likely to seek out positive feedback and social support from others

why do black adolescents have high self-esteem?

• benefit from support/positive feedback of adults in Black community, especially in the family

• very strong sense of ethnic identity

self-esteem’s impact on development

high = better in school, better well-being, low = emotional and behavioural problems

• inspired self esteem movement in schools: boost self-esteem to boost academics - not effective

three aspects of adolescents’ self-image

• self-esteem

• self-consciousness

• self-image stability

fluctuations in self-image in adolescence

1. egocentrism common in early adolescence = aware of reactions to their behaviour

2. learn than people play games when they interact - not always easy to read people

3. heightened interest in what peers think of them

• better peer and family relationships lead to maintaining positive self-esteem

what is the most significant predictor of adolescent self-esteem?

physical appearance

identity

conceptualization of the self - description or definition of the self, theory of oneself; security about who they are/were/will be

• Erikson: adolescence is a crisis of identity vs. role confusion - need of psychosocial moratorium

• James Marcia: need to consider both exploration and commitment during adolescence

• identity diffusion → identity foreclosure → moratorium → identity achievement

• continual process, go back and forth between stages

identity diffusion

no strong sense of who you are

• higher levels of behavioural/emotional problems, difficulties with relationships, self-consciousness

• more likely to report low levels of parental warmth/support

• Holden Caulfield

negative identity

select identities that are undesirable to their parents and community

• recognized by others not in way that fosters healthy development

• represents attempt of self-definition in environment where it is difficult to establish acceptable identity

identity foreclosure

haven’t explored various identities and prematurely committed to an identity

• show low anxiety, general life satisfaction

• associated with higher levels of prejudice, inflexibility, need for social approval, lower sense of autonomy

• common with controlling/over protective parents - adolescent’s goals set by parents

moratorium

doing identity exploration but haven’t committed to anything yet - experiment with different identities

• can be associated with high levels of anxiety, conflict with authority

• correlates may depend on length of exploration, rumination about exploration

identity achievement

done the exploration and committed to a role

• associated with high achievement, maturity, intimacy, agency

• generally not established before 18 years (boys tend to lag behind girls)

identity status

point in identity development that characterizes adolescent at given time

• depth (commitment to identity and then exploring options) and breadth (exploring options and then making further commitment)

ways of resolving an identity crisis

approach identity decisions with open mind (informational orientation) - strong sense of agency (responsibility for themselves)

• more likely to have had authoritative homes characterize by warm and not excessively constraining relations

cognitive change and identity development

not until adolescence that people are able to think in systematic ways about hypothetical and future events

• can imagine possible selves

• increase in future orientation

future orientation

ability/tendency to consider long-term consequences of one’s decisions and imagine what one’s life might be like in years to come

social roles and identity development

adolescence is a time for big decisions about school, work, relationships, future

• raises questions about identity

ethnic-racial identification

how someone labels their race/ethnicity - seems to develop in childhood

ethnic-racial identity

thoughts/feelings about race and ethnicity and the process of developing thoughts/feelings - questions heightened in adolescence

• White youth have lower sense of it than minority groups

process of ethnic-racial identity

• early childhood: unexamined

• exploration = seeking out answers/community/experiences - triggered by an event causing realization of difference

• resolution: stable feeling of how racial identity fits into sense of self

• heavily dependent by social context

ethnic/racial affirmation

how good/bad person feels about being part of their ethnic/racial group - tends to be a protective factor

ethnic/racial public regard

how positively a person believes other people view their identity

ethnic/racial centrality

how important person’s group is to their identity - often high for minority groups

ethnic/racial salience

how important person feels their group is to particular situation

types of ethnic/racial identities

bicultural, separated, assimilated, marginalized

positive ERI

• lower levels of depressive symptoms

• higher self esteem

• positive academic outcomes

• protection in face of discrimination

ethnic racial socialization

children taught about race - typically by parents

• common in marginalized groups

• common themes: understanding/valuing ones culture, dealing with racism, succeeding in society

• made stronger through frequent contact with peers from same ER group

school and ERI

• context → diversity, segregation

• affinity groups (same ERI): opportunity to discuss shared experiences

• impacts of formal curriculum on it?

• foreign born and first gen ethnic minority youth more likely to perform better (immigrant paradox)

the identity project (2018)

universal intervention program to increase ERI exploration and resolution to predict adolescent psychosocial functioning one year later

• explore own ER background

• learn about peers’ backgrounds

• discuss issues of race and ethnicity within school

• found the intervention caused increase in self-esteem and grades, decrease in depressive symptoms

multiracial youth

• ERI development may be challenging

• less likely to report positive ERI, less ERI centrality

• changes over time

• intersectionality of ERI

discrimination and its effects

discrimination increases markedly during transition from childhood to adolescence

• self-esteem is highly affected

• predictive of conduct problems, depression, poor sleep, lower achievement in school

• multidimensional model of racial identity

multidimensional model of racial identity

3 different aspects of racial identity

1. racial centrality: how important race is to identity (increases in adolescence)

2. private regard: how individuals feel about being a member of their race (remains stable in adolescence)

3. public regard: how individuals think others view their race (differs depending on background)

gender role

societal expectations of gendered behaviour/thought/traits

• present almost all cultures

• boys: aggressive, competitive, assertive, risky, independent, athletic

• girls: affectionate, gentle, loves children, compassionate, understanding

sex assigned at birth

objectively measurable biological organs, hormones, chromosomes

gender/gender identity

person’s sense of self as gendered

sexual orientation

who a person is physically/emotionally attracted to

gender role behaviour

extent to which an individual behaves in traditionally masculine or feminine ways

• highly stable over time

• males who do not conform to traditional behaviour are more likely to be bullied than female counterparts (girls less likely to be punished for exhibiting masculine traits)

gender intensification hypothesis

pressures to behave in sex stereotypic ways appear to increase temporarily during middle adolescence

gender development in infancy/toddlerhood

• can discriminate between male/female, but focus on superficial cues by ~ 3 months (hair, pitch of voice)

• some awareness of gender stereotypes - look longer at own gender stereotyped toys and at gender-inconsistent pictures by ~ 2 years

gender development in childhood

changes in cognitive development = shifts in thinking about gender

• Lawrence Kohlberg’s Cognitive Developmental Theory of Gender

• shift from gender essential essentialism (being assigned a gender will make you act a certain way) to gender as socially influenced

• increase in knowledge of gender stereotypes - peak at ~5-7 years

Lawrence Kohlberg’s Cognitive Developmental Theory of Gender

1. Gender Identity (2-2.5 years): know own and other people’s gender

2. Gender Stability (3-4 years): start understanding that you stay the gender you’re born as

3. Gender Constancy (5-7 years): stable with time, now understanding that gender stays the same in all situations and with appearance changes

gender development in adolescence

• gender-role intensification: heightened concern about adhering to traditional gender roles - more in behaviour

• gender-role flexibility: allowing for gender conventions to be transcended - more in beliefs

puberty and gender differences

mostly in physical growth

• development of primary and secondary sex characteristics

• following puberty = increase in sex-linked differences

cognitive gender differences

• IQ tests: girls are better at verbal tasks and boys are better at spatial

• academic performance: girls are slightly better at school

• beliefs/interests (thinking about differences in competence is more significant that actual difference)

gender differences with toys

• girls: dolls, kitchen sets, dress up

• boys: action figures, construction toys, video games

gender differences in style of play

• boys more physically active, competitive

• girls more cooperative

gender differences in fantasy play

• boys more likely to involve heroes, combat

• girls: household chores, romance

gender differences in size of play group

girls: pairs/threes

boys: larger groups

gender differences in emotions

• girls: better at expressing, decoding, managing emotions

  • show more happiness, fear, sadness

  • have poorer mental health

• boys: express more anger

gender differences in goals

• boys: emphasize power and dominance

• girls: emphasize intimacy and support

gender differences in aggression

• boys: engage in direct aggression

• girls: engage in indirect aggression (gossip, passive aggressive