G9 Biology Unit 4 (Transportation and Excretion) + Unit 3 (Gas Exchange System)

List 5 things vaccines can be made from.

1. Dead pathogen
2. Weakened pathogen
3. Toxins of bacteria
4. Antigens of pathogen
5. mRNA to produce antigens that imitate pathogen

What are pleural muscles?

Thin membranes of fluid that create an airtight seal around the lungs to maintain pressure.

Give 5 adaptations of the alveoli.

1. One cell thick for short diffusion distance
2. Cell walls permeable to gases
3. Large surface area for diffusion of gases
4. Moist to dissolve gases, increasing diffusion rate.
5. Blood supply to maintain large concentration gradient.

How do pollutants/chemicals affect alveoli?

They cause inflammation of the alveoli

Deamination

Amino acids broken down in the liver into urea

What substances do kidneys excrete?

Urea, water, ions

What substances does the skin excrete?

Water and salt (through sweat)

What substances do the lungs excrete?

Carbondioxide and water (water vapor)

What is excretion?

Excretion is the removal of metabolic waste from the body.

What is metabolic waste? Give an example.

Metabolic waste is made from a chemical reaction (e.g: CO2 from respiration)

How is urine made? (starting from the blood)

1. Blood enters kidney from the renal artery
2. Blood is filtered by the nephrons and passes out through the renal vein.
3. Urine that is created passes out through the ureters to the bladder where it is stored.
4. Sphincter muscles in the bladder hold the urine until the bladder is full.
5. Urine passes out the urethra.

What is the name of the muscles in the bladder that hold urine?

Sphincter muscles

Name all structures of the kidney.

Renal pelvis, Cortex, Medulla, Pyramids, Nephron

What happens in the pyramids (in the kidney)

Urine is collected in the pyramids.

What happens in the renal pelvis?

Urine is drained into the renal pelvis to travel out the ureter.

Name the 5 main structures of a nephron.

Bowman's capsule, glomerulus, convoluted tubules, loop of Henle, collecting duct

Explain how blood is filtered by the nephron. (9 steps)

1. Blood travels through the capillaries and enters the glomerulus.
2. Small parts in the blood are forced out in the Bowman's capsule.
3. Fluid moves along the nephron as glomerular filtrate.
4. 100% of the glucose in the filtrate is absorbed in the proximal convoluted tubule.
5. Water can be reabsorbed in the loop of Henle.
6. Water and ions can be reabsorbed in the distal convoluted tubule.
7. Filtrate enters the collecting duct which can now be called urine.
8. Here, ADH controls the amount of water loss.
9. Blood leaves the glomerulus in capillaries and eventually joins the renal vein.

What parts are filtered out the blood in the Bowman's Capsule?

Glucose, amino acids, water, fats, ions, urea

What parts are NOT filtered out the blood in the Bowman's Capsule?

RBCs and proteins

Why are certain substances not filtered in the bowman's capsule?

They are too big.

What is the fluid that moves along nephron tubules called?

Glomerular filtrate

What happens in the proximal convoluted tubules?

100% of glucose is reabsorbed

What happens in the loop of Henle?

Water can be reabsorbed

What happens in the distal convoluted tubules?

Water and ions can be reabsorbed

What happens in the collecting duct?

ADH controls the amount of water loss

What is ultrafiltration?

High pressure forces water, glucose, amino acids, ions, and urea into the Bowman's capsule across a selectively permeable membrane.

How does the loop of henle work?

Concentration gradients of salts (ions) in the blood allow for osmosis to occur in the loop of Henle.

What happens in type I and II diabetes?

People with type I and II diabetes have high blood glucose levels, so tubules can fail to absorb all of it.

Where is glucose reabsorbed in the nephron?

In the proximal convoluted tubules

How does ADH work? (5 steps)

1. Hypothalamus detects water levels.
2. Pituitary gland is stimulated and releases ADH into the blood.
3. ADH travels to kidney and makes the collecting duct more permeable to water.
4. Water is reabsorbed into the blood.
5. Urine is more concentrated.

What does ADH do?

It regulates water content in the blood

How does ADH increase water content in the blood?

ADH travels to the kidneys through the blood making the collecting duct more permeable to water.

How does the body produce ADH?

The hypothalamus detects water levels and stimulates the pituitary gland which releases ADH into the blood.

What is osmoregulation?

Osmoregulation is the control of water and salt (ion) concentrations in the body.

What does the xylem transport?

Water and dissolved minerals

What does the phloem transport?

Glucose and Amino Acids

What is xylem made of?

Dead cells with a strong hollow lumen made from lignin

What process causes movement in the xylem?

Transpiration

What is movement in the phloem called?

translocation

Describe 3 features of the phloem.

1. Long, tube-shaped cells from nutrient transport from leaves to roots
2. Pores with sieve tubes between each cell
3. Companion cells to help translocation (move nutrients up/down)

What do companion cells do in the phloem?

They help move nutrients up/down. (translocation)

Which direction does water in xylem vessels move?

Up

Which direction do nutrients in the phloem move?

Up/Down

How is water absorbed in the roots?

There is high concentration of minerals in the root hair cells, so water moves from low solute concentration to high solute concentration, and osmosis occurs.

What is transpiration?

The loss of water from a plant.

How does transpiration cause the movement of water up by the xylem?

Loss of water reduces pressure, so more water is drawn up through the xylem.

What is the use of translocation?

Glucose is supplied for respiration/storage, and amino acids are supplied for growth.

What are the abiotic factors affecting transpiration?

Light intensity, temperature, wind speed, humidity

How does light intensity affect transpiration?

Increase causes stomata to open so more water diffuses out of the leaves and thus increases the rate of transpiration.

What is the limiting factor of light intensity affecting transpiration?

Once all stomata are open, further light intensity will not affect transpiration rate.

How does temperature affect transpiration?

Increase in temperature causes water vapor particles to move faster, thus increasing the rate of transpiration.

How does humidity affect transpiration?

Increases reduces the concentration gradient between the leaf and the atmosphere, decreasing transpiration.

Do unicellular organisms require a transport system?

No

What is plasma made of? (and what does it do)

Made of 90% water. It transports glucose, antibodies, nutrients, hormones, waste products, and CO2.

What do red blood cells do?

They contain haemoglobin which is a protein that carries oxygen.

Do RBCs have a nucleus?

No

Describe the shape of a red blood cell and its function.

Biconcave shape allows large SA:V ratio for maximum oxygen diffusion.

What do platelets do?

They trigger clotting factors to begin blood clotting which prevents pathogens from entering a wound.

What are WBCs? (name the two components)

They are part of the immune system, including phagocytes and lymphocytes.

What do phagocytes do?

They engulf and destroy pathogens by phagocytosis.

What do lymphocytes do?

They create antibodies and remember past infections.

Explain the process of phagocytosis. (5 steps)

1. Phagocyte recognizes a pathogen.
2. It engulfs the pathogen.
3. Lysosome forms around the pathogen.
4. Digestive enzyme breaks down pathogen.
5. It releases part of pathogen to flag down more specialized WBCs.

What do arteries do?

They carry oxygenated blood away from the heart into organs.

List 3 features of the artery.

1. High pressure so vessel walls are thick and muscular.
2. Small lumen.
3. Can be restriced or dilated to control blood pressure.

What do veins do?

They carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart

List 3 features of veins.

1. Low pressure so vessel walls are thin.
2. Large lumen.
3. Valves to prevent backflow

What do capillaries do?

They carry blood through organs to all cells.

List 2 features of capillaries.

1. Permeable for easy exchange of nutrients, gases, and waste.
2. One cell thick

What are coronary arteries?

They are the vessels that supply blood to the heart.

Where are the semi lunar valves located?

Between the left and right ventricle.

Where is the tricuspid valve located?

between right atrium and right ventricle

What are pulmonary vessels?

Vessels connecting the heart to the lungs

Describe the process of a heartbeat (3 steps)

1. Blood enters with valves closed.
2. Valves open as atria contract to push oxygenated blood into the left ventricle from pulmonary veins and deoxygenated blood into the right ventricle from the vena cava.
3. Ventricles contract, as oxygenated blood exits through the aorta and deoxyegnated blood enters the pulmonary artery to the lungs. Valves close to prevent backflow.

Explain the effect of excercise on heart rate. (4 steps)

1. When excercising, body requires more oxygen for aerobic respiration.
2. Sensors in aorta and cartoid detect rise in CO2 levels.
3. Information is sent to medulla in the brain.
4. Medulla sends impulses through nerves to increase/decrease heart rate.

Explain what happens in coronary heart disease. (3 points)

1. Plaque from fatty foods builds up in coronary arteries.
2. Body tries to repair artery damage, causing atherosclerosis.
3. Plaque can get too big and block vessels causing heart attack.

What % of WBCs are lymphocytes?

25%

How do lymphocytes produce antibodies? (5 steps)

1. Phagocyte presents pathogen antigen to lymphocyte.
2. Lymphocyte clones/divides itself many times.
3. Lymphocyte produces antibodies for specific antigen.
4. Antibodies travel bloodstream looking for specific antigen.
5. Antibodies bind to the antigen to inactivate the pathogen.

What is the secondary immune response?

If a person is reinfected with the same pathogen, lymphocytes quickly produce antibodies.

How are lungs adapted for its function?

Lungs have a large surface area in close contact with blood capillaries to enable diffusion of O2 in and CO2 out.

What is the trachea?

Tube with half rings of cartilage spaced along it. Lined with cells that make mucus and cells with cilia.

What is the function of bronchi?

Carries air into lungs from trachea

What is the function of bronchioles?

Carries air from the bronchi to the alveoli

What is the alveoli?

Tiny air sacs where gas diffuses into the blood capillaries.

What are ribs?

bones that protect and ventilate lungs

What is the trachea and bronchi lined with?

Goblet and ciliated cells

What does mucus and cilia do?

It stops foregin materials such as dust, bacteria, and pollen from entering the lungs.

What do the ciliated cells do?

They constantly move mucus up into the mouth where it is safely swallowed.

What do goblet cells do?

secrete mucus

In what direction do the ribs move when breathing in?

Move up and out through the movement of intercostal muscles

In what direction does the diaphragm move when breathing in?

Contracts and moves down to increase the size of the thorax cavity.

What happens to pressure in the lungs when breathing in?

Decreases, as air rushes in.

In what direction does the diaphragm move when breathing out?

Relaxes and moves up to decrease the size of thorax cavity.

What is the process of gas exchange from lungs to cells? (at a cellular level - 4 steps)

1. O2 diffuses into capillaries from alveoli and joins haemoglobin in RBCs.
2. O2 reaches cells through capillaries.
3. O2 in RBC diffuses into cell tissue.
4. CO2 diffuses from cell tissue to blood plasma in the capillaries and are carried back to the lungs to be exhaled.

How does the body's immune system react to foreign materials inside lungs?

It releases enzymes which cause breakdown of connective tissue

How do the enzymes produced from foregin particles entering the lungs affect the respiratory system? (2 points)

1. Alveoli becomes damaged and join to form larger sacs. Capillaries are also damaged.
2. Surface area decreases reducing gas diffusion.

What device tests lung capactiy and breathing rate?

Spirometer

What is the tidal volume on a spirometer?

amount of air breathed in/out during normal breathing

What is the vital capacity on a spirometer?

maximum amount of air that can be exhaled

How does wind speed affect transpiration?

Increase in wind speed causes water particles moved away outside the leaf faster, and thus this increases the concentration gradient between the leaf and the atmosphere resulting to a higher rate of transpiration.

List all blood components

Red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, plasma