PHONETICS MIDTERM

consonant phonemes can be describes by 3 dimensions…

• Place of articulation: the places where the airstream
  is constricted by the articulators; (Where a sound is
  formed)

• Manner of articulation: the ways the airstream is
  modified by the articulators; (How a sound is
  formed)

• Voicing: tells whether or not the vocal folds are
  vibrating when the sound is produced

The straight forward symbols

• same sounds as letters they represent in standard English orthography

• theta

• thick, thud, bath

• voiceless interdental fricative

• One of the 2 sounds represented by “th”

• these, the, bathe, they, mother

• voiced interdental fricative

• represented by orthographic “sh”

• there are other allographs that make this sound as well

• show, sugar, machine, passion, anxious, ocean

• voiceless palatal fricative

• Used infrequently, one of the last sounds used by children

• pleasure, rouge, lesion, television

• voiced palatal fricative

• Usually represented by orthographic “ch” although other graphemes can represent this sound as well

• chop, which, cello, match

• voiceless palatal affricate

• “soft g”, usually spelled with orthographic j and some g

• judge, gym, age, gin, joke

• voiced palatal affricate

sing, rank, tongue, long, uncle, think

• voiced velar nasal

yes, yo-yo, yellow, yesterday, music, ice cubes

• voiced palatal glide

Inverted “w”

• historically transcribed as /hw/

• disappearing from American english

• frication in production (as opposed to /w/ which has no frication)

• twine, when, whale, whey, why

• voiceless bilabial glide

Glottal stop

• airstream cut off at the glottic (space between the vocal folds)

• sometimes not included as part of English phonemes - it is a dialectal variation

• heard in :uh-uh”could be produced when saying “curtain” and “mountain”

• you can feel the constriction at the level of the glottis as you say the glottal stop in a word

• voiceless glottal stop-plosive

Flap

• intervocalic one-tap trill

• tongue contacts the alveolar ridge very briefly. Flap sounds like a /d/ of very short duration

• when said rapidly, the following types of words include the flap phoneme: CITY, PRETTY, DAUGHTER, WRITER, PUDDLE, MODERN, NAUGHTY, BUTTER

consonants

A speech sound produced with a complete or partial obstruction to the airstream and combines with a vowel to form a syllable

Classification system for consonants

place, manner, voicing

consonants characteristics

1. a speech sound

2. Air moves through a partial or completely closed vocal tract during production.

3. can be voiced or voiceless

4. can have oral or nasal resonance

5. considered a closed sound

6. can be a singleton (ex., sun) or can occur in a sequence/cluster (ie., spot, past)

7. can occur in pre-, inter-, or post-vocalic positions within a word

Place of articulation

• the places where the airstream is constricted by the articulators (where a sound is formed)

manner of articulation

• the ways the airstream is modified by the articulators; (how a sound is formed)

voicing

• tells whether or not the vocal folds are vibrating when the sound is produced

types of voicing, place, and manner

obstruent

a sound made with a complete or narrow constriction at some point in the vocal tract

• stops

• fricatives

• affricates

sonorant

also includes vowels; produced with a relatively free flow of air through the vocal tract

• nasals

• liquids

• glides

Stops

(obstruent)

• produced with complete closure of the vocal tract, so that the airflow ceases temporarily and air pressure builds up behind the point of closure

• pressure builds up behind the point of closure and is then released producing a short burst of noise (stop burst0

• oral cavity is completely closed at some point

• velopharynx is closed (so air does not escape through the nose)

• stops can be “unreleased: at the end of a word; no stop burst

• rapid articulatory movement

• /p/, /t/, /k/, /b/, /d/, /g/

Fricatives

(Obstruent)

• articulators form a narrow constriction through which the airflow is channeled

• air pressure increases int he chamber behind the construction

• as the air flows through he narrow opening, friction noise is generated

• velopharync is closed (velum is raised)

Affricates

(Obstruent)

• combination of stop and fricative

• air is built up (like a stop) then released as a Burt of noice (like a fricative); unlike stops, they must be released for their proper heard

• velum raised: velopharynx closed

• final consonants in the words “rich” and “ridge’

• both palatal

Nasals

(sonorant)

• sound energy created by pulses of air from the vibrating vocal folds must pass through the nasal cavities

• usually produced with complete oral closure (like a stop), but with lowered velum (open velopharynx) - sound travels trough nose

• can occur in syllable-initial, syllable-final, and intervocalic positions

Liquids

sonorant

• vowel-like consonants where the vocal tract is constricted only slightly more than for vowels

• velum raised

• sustained sound production

• tongue makes a midline (central) closure with the alveolar ridge, but there is an opening maintained at the sides of the tongue

• oral passage is narrower than for vowels. But wider than for stops, fricatives, and nasals

• 2 types: lateral /l/ - Low , Rhotic /r/ (consonant /r/) - Row

• can occur in syllable-initial, syllable-final, or intervocalic positions

Rhotic Sound /r/

• Two major ways to produce the soujd

1. retroflex /r/ - hold the tongue tip so it is pointed up slightly and not quite touching the alveolar ridge or the adjoining palatal area

2. Bunched /r/ - bunch the tongue in the palatal area of the mouth

Glides

sonorant

• semi-vowel (resemble vowels; short duration)

• gliding movement of articulators from a partially constricted state to more open for the following vowel

• velum raised

• cannot occur as the nucleus of a syllable

• found exclusively in the prevocalic position

Categories of consonants

1. stridents - iahve intence fricative energy

• affricates + labiodental, alveolar, and palatal fricatives

2. sibilants

• alveolar and post alveolar (palatal) fricatives and affricates

place of articulation terms

Bilabials

(both lips)

• bilabial stops - /p/, /b/

• bilabial nasal - /m/

• bilabial glide - /w/

no English fricatives, affricates, or liquids are bilabials

labiodentals

• constriction b'/t lower lip and upper incisors

• /f/, /v/

Lingua-dentals (also called interdentals)

• both lingua-dnetals are fricatives

alveolars

• most common place for consonant production

• alveolar stops - /t/, /d/

• alveolar fricatives - /s/, /z/

• lateral (alveolar lateral)

• alveolar nasal - /n/, /l/

Palatals

• elevating tongue tip and blade toward palate

velars

• velar stops - /k/, /g/

• velar nasal (ring and wink

• labio-velar glides /w/, /hw/

Glottals

• Glottal fricative /h/

• glottal stop - sometimes heard in certain English dialects

voicing contrast

cognates?

• pairs of sounds that share the same place and manner of articulation but differ in the voicing feature

non cognates

syllabic consonants:

omit the preceding vowel

• a syllabic consonant becomes its own syllable

• it is taking on the function of a vowel, which is the syllable nucleus

locations for place, voicing, and manner

names for consonant symbols

3 Major Functional Systems of speech production

• Respiratory

• Laryngeal

• Supralaryngeal (or pharyngeal- oral-nasal)
  

Respiratory System Components

- diaphragm is most important muscle

-lungs
- ribcage
- abdomen
- associated muscles
Power for Speech: Acts as the pump to provide the movement of the air needed

functions of the systems of speech production

Speech is an overlay function (secondary to the life-sustaining function of each)

• Respiratory System (Power for speech)

• Laryngeal System (Phonation)

• Supralaryngeal System(Articulation & Resonation)
  

Speech/Articulation

• Controlled action of over 100 muscles in the chest, abdomen, neck, & head

• Fast! Conversational rates of up to 6 – 9 syllables per second (faster than texting or typing)

• Relies on more muscle fibers than any other human mechanical activity 5

Respiratory system functions

• Primary function : supply the blood with oxygen in order for the blood to deliver oxygen to all parts of the body

• Secondary function : provide the power for speech

Respiratory System & Sounds in English

• All sounds in the English Language are EGRESSIVE (produced with flow of air that moves OUTWARD from the lungs through the mouth or nose)

• Some sounds in other language are INGRESSIVE (require INWARD movement of air) ex. Tongue clicks

  
  

Diaphragm

• The most important muscle of respiration.

• Separates the chest cavity from the stomachSeparates the chest cavity from the stomach

  (Respiratory)

Respiration

Pump-like action
– When the diaphragm contracts, oxygen is pulled into the lungs and volume of the thoracic cavity expands
– When the diaphragm relaxes , carbon dioxide is pumped out of the lungs and volume of the thoracic cavity contracts

Respiration Function

• inspiration – air drawn into the lungs

• expiration – releases air into larynx and supralaryngeal system for the purpose of generating speech

• provides additional energy for louder volumes and lifting heavy objects

Respiration: Breath Group

• breathing patterns?

– Sequence of words or syllables produced on a single expiration
– Distinctive for oral communication (speech)
– Typically, we can speak for no more than 10 seconds on a single breath group
– Normally, we interrupt inspiration at syntactically appropriate places (phrase, clause, sentence boundaries)
– Breath group coincides with syntactic units

- quiet breathing – The rates of inspiration (40%) and expiration (60%) are about the same
- Speech breathing - The rate of inspiration is quicker than expiration about 10% to 90%

Laryngeal System

Primary life-sustaining function

• keeps foreign material (foods/liquids) out of trachea and lungs

Function for speech

• phonation (vibration of the vocal folds)

Laryngeal System Components

Larynx - made up of cartilage and muscle

• located on top of trachea (connects the lungs to the larynx

• 3 cartilages - Cricoid, thyroid, arytenoid

• Inside the larynx are the vocal folds

• vocal folds - cushions of muscle located inside larynx; shorter in women than men

Epiglottis

• closes the entrance of the voice box (larynx) and trachea during swallowing

• a leaf-shaped flap of cartilage located behind the tongue

• attached to the thyroid cartilage and hyoid bone

• usually upright at rest allowing air to pass into larynx and lungs

(Laryngeal)

vocal folds

• small cushions of muscle

• males - ¾ of an inch long

• shorter in women and children

• attach tot he Adams apple in the front

(Laryngeal)

vocal fold vibration

• muscles of larynx bring vocal folds together (adducted) at onset phonation

• force of air developed in lungs blows them apart (abducted)

• Rate of VF vibration (number of open-close cylces per unit of time) is about 125 per second for an adult male

• 250 per second for an adult female

• Higher for children

• Newborn – 500 per second

• Differences in cycles per second we perceive as differences of pitch 24

• Fundamental frequency (foo)- basic rate at which vocal folds move (determined by size of vocal(determined by size of vocal folds & muscle/tension – alter the rate of vibration)folds & muscle/tension – alter the rate of vibration)

• Pitch is the acoustic correlate of frequency

• Frequency is measured in Hertz (Hz)

• One Hz is one complete vibration per sec.

• Changing pitch (ex. higher pitch: faster vibration)

Supralaryngeal System

• part of the speech system that is ABOVE the larynx

• “pharyngeal-nasal-oral system (3 major cavities)

Cavities of the Supralaryngeal System

1. pharyngeal cavity or pharynx (muscular tube also referred to as throat)

2. oral cavity

3. nasal cavity

Supralaryngeal System components

• Process – direct air flow orally or nasally through the position of the velum

• Velopharyngeal port - (oropharynx) - opening between oral and nasal cavities

• velum (soft palate) - raise or lowers to direct air flow for oral vs nasal sounds - uvula is the ip of the velum

articulation (mobile/immobile)?

• process of moving structures of the vocal tract so that they join together in different positions

• Mobil/active articulators - velum (soft palate), mandible, tongue, lips, and pharyngeal walls

• immobile articulators: alveolar ridge, hard palate, teeth

• some articulators can change in shape and position (ex. tongue), some only change in position (ex. Jaw), and some do neither (ex. hard palate)

velum

• radiation of sound

• moves upward (raises) to close off the nasal cavity for ORAL radiation of sound

• lowers to open up the nasal cavity for NASAL radiation of sound

Articulation - acts as a point of contact for velar sounds, /k/ and /g/

(supra laryngeal)

Jaw

• mandible - active/mobile

• contributes to the movements of the tongue and lower lip

• temporomandibular joint (TMJ)

• some protrusion and retraction

(supra laryngeal)

Tongue

• muscular organ

• support from jaw and hyoid bone

• lengthens and narrows

• flattens and expands width

• classify VOWE;S by the movement of the tongue

tip → blade → dorsum → root. = BODY

(supra laryngeal)

lips

• open and close (ex: /p/,/b/)

• round or retract for certain vowels /I/ vs /u/

(supra laryngeal)

scientific names for…

tip of tongue

Adams apple

soft palate

voice box

lower jaw

wind pipe

apex

laryngeal prominence of the thyroid cartilage

velum

larynx

madible

trachea

Phonetics

• The study of the production and perception of speech sounds.

• Using a system of symbols to that accurately and reliably represent the sounds of a language.

Clinical Phonetics

• The application of phonetics to clinical populations.

• Describes speech differences and disorders

• Includes knowledge about speech sounds and perceptual skills used in clinical settings.

Spelling vs Phonetics

• There is a difference between “spelling” and “phonetics.”

• The spelling of a word doesn’t indicate how the word is pronounced in the English language

• Example: The letter ‘a’ - cake: had: father: many

How will you use phonetics as an SLP?

• To transcribe speech produced by clients - during evaluation, therapy to monitor progress

• to teach accurate sound production to clients

• to help clients discriminate correct and incorrect productions

Phonology

• The study of the sound system of a language: the structure and function of the sounds.

• This includes the variations of the sounds and the rules for combining them.

Phonotactics

Phonological rules that dictate what positions in the syllable a phonetic segment is permitted to occupy and how the sounds can combine

• English examples: the phonemes /l/ and /r/ are never adjacent to one another within the same syllable. Across syllables this is permissible, as in “ballroom”

• the “ng” sound in “sing” never occurs at the beginning of a word

Areas of Phonetics

• Acoustic phonetics
  - physical properties of sound

  • frequency, amplitude, duration

• Articulatory phonetics

  (aka physiological or informational or descriptive phonetics)

  – how and where sounds are produced in the dynamic vocal tract

• Perceptual phonetics

  • study of how we hear & interpret speech sounds.

informational domain

knowledge about speech sounds - This domain is also known as articulatory phonetics and this domain includes information about how the phonemes are produced

examples": vowels are always voiced, vowels form the nucleus of the syllable. “r-sounds” may be vowels or consonants

• schwa (the first phoneme in the word Above and the final phoneme in the word sofA) is the most frequently-occuring speech sound in the English language

  • Are the sounds voiced or voiceless?

  • are the sounds produced with an open vocal tract or constrictions in the vocal tract?

  • is there a complete stoppage of air or does the air have a continuous flow?

perceptual domain

How we perceive and discriminate productions of speech sounds

This class emphasizes listening (perceptual discrimination) of speech sounds and then describing them using phonetic symbols (phonetic transcription).

skills of the clinician: linguistic, response, and system complexity

linguistic complexity

This progression parallels a common progression in clinical management of speech disorders

isolation → word → sentence → conversation

response complexity

• one sounds

• multiple sounds

• ex: Pig, cuP to pig and cup

system complexity

• two-way scoring

• five-way scoring

• phonetic transcription

increases in complexity

Two-way Scoring

• Task that requires the clinician to make a binary decision about the speech behavior

• Correct v. incorrect

• who can achieve this type of scoring?

five-way scoring

• requires a clinician to go a step further

• decide incorrect v correct

• decide what type of error the client mas

1. substitution

2. omission/deletion

3. distortion

4. addition

phonetic transcription

• describe what the client says

• more complex than the 2 or 5 way scoring

• international phonetic alphabet

• broad or narrow transcription

• only carried out by trained clinicians

• identification of variants of phonemes (allophones)

for an SLP, phonetic transcription is the use of IPA as a visual representation of speech sounds

• uses diacritic marks and bracket [. ]

morphology

morpheme

• study of the meaning-based units of the language - individual morphemes

• smallest unit of meaning

can be

words (cat)

plural endings (cats)

verb tense endings (walked)

prefixes (unhappy)

suffixes (quickly)

phonemes

• Phonemes are speech segments (sounds) that differentiate morphemes such as BAT and HAT.

• about 43 phonemes in english

• If the sound change alters meaning, each sound is a separate phoneme

• Minimal pairs – ex. hot, pot, cot, rot, lot

allophone

• Allophones are phonetic variations of a phoneme, meaning it may sound slightly different, but it doesn’t change the meaning of the morpheme.

• An allophone is your actual attempt at producing the phoneme

• Most of our sound productions are a little bit different each time - they occur in different contexts, with different adjacent phonemes, with varying duration
  examples:

  • key vs coke
    

  • time vs hat

Phonemic Transcription

• Transcription – analytic representation of speech sound production

• International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)

• some phonemes have symbols representing the sound that is the same as the letter (grapheme) ex: /d/, /t/, /l/

• identification of sound segments that have linguistic significance in a language - the phonemes

• uses slashes //

perceptual phonetics

1. system complexity - methods of discriminating sounds

a) Binary (2way, correct or incorrect)

b? 5 way scoring - correct; substitution; omission; distortion; addition (SODA)

c) Transcription: - narrow vs broad transcription (phonetic vs phonemic)

Linguistic phonetics

language vs speech

Language- common code among a group for symbolically representing ideas & concepts

Speech - mode of spoken language expression

linguistic analysis:

dictionary

lexicon

phonemic system

phonetic events

words

morphemes

phonemes

allophones

dialects

• differences in pronunciation, vocabulary or grammar within a language

morphemic transcription

• identification of meaningful units

linguistic analysis examples of “cats”

word position of sounds

Consonant positions:

prevocalic: sound occurs before a vowel - TO

postvocalic: target sound occurs after a vowel - AT

Intervocalic: sounds occurs between two vowels in a word with 2+ syllables - WAGON

(initial, medial, final: position in words where phonemes occur)

syllable types

syllable initial and final sounds

Syllable shapes

types:

• open - syllable ends in vowel sound

• closed - syllable ends in consonant sound

Syllable initial and final sounds

• releasing - initial sounds in a syllable

• arresting - final sounds in a syllable

Syllable Shapes:

• V, CV, VC, CVC, CCVC, CCCVC

Simple vs complex syllable

simple - a syllable that contains no consonants or only singleton consonants

ex: eye = V; my=CV; I'm=VC; mine=CVC

Complex syllable - a syllable that contains at least one sequence

ex: ask=VCC; spy=CCV; sprint=CCCVCC

Characteristics of vowels:

1. Vowels are voiced (vocal fold vibration)

2. Vowels resonate in the oral cavity

3. No significant constrictions/ open vocal tract

• 4. Vowels are the nucleus of a syllable (one sound per syllable)

  5. most acoustic energy

Vowels are Classified in 4 ways:

1. tongue height (jaw opening) – high mid low

2. tongue advancement – front central back

3. tongue tension (duration) – tense or lax

4. lip rounding

Monophthongs

pure vowels; production is the same from beginning to end; minimal movement of the tongue during production of a pure vowel; 14 of them (see the Vowel Quadrilateral)

• 1 sound; single unchanging sound quality

  Ex. who /u/         hat /æ/         hid /ɪ/

Vowel quadrilateral

• A graphic representation of the position of the tongue in the mouth when producing vowel sounds. Note the phonetic and the orthographic symbols used in the dictionary

Point vowels/corner vowels

• These 4 vowels represent the most extreme position of the tongue, as far as advancement (front to back) and height (high-low),  when producing vowels.

• They are the vowel sounds in   he /i/,  who /u/,   hat /æ/ ,  hot /ɑ