Virginia Tech - Introduction to Psychology Exam 3 (Geller)

Classical Conditioning

Previously neural stimuli come to elicit autonomic responses

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that reflexively triggers an autonomic response

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

The autonomic behavior/response triggered by the UCS

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A stimulus which was previously neutral when triggering a response, but comes to elicit a similar response to the one triggered by the UCS because it's associated with the UCS

Conditioned Response (CR)

The same type of response originally elicited by the UCS, but occurs because of the CS

Acquisition

The period of learning during which a conditioned response is developed

Extinction

Where a CR is weakened and eventually ceases because its no longer paired with a UCS

Spontaneous Recovery

When a previously extinguished learned response suddenly returns

Stimulus Generalization

Occurs when a CR is triggered by a stimulus similar to the original CS

Stimulus Discrimination

Occurs when a CR is not exhibited in the presence of other stimuli, because they are sufficiently different from the original CS

Conditioned Taste Aversion

When getting sick (UCS) is paired with food/drink (CS), leads to feeling nausea in the the presence of the same food/drink later

Phobia

An extreme or irrational fear of or aversion to something; will be avoided at all costs

Operant Conditioning

Voluntary behavior comes to be controlled by consequences following its occurance

Discriminative Stimulus

A stimulus that indicates the availability of a reinforcer following a particular behavior (classroom prompts quiet and note taking)

Contingency Management

Techniques that regulate behavior by controlling its consequences

Reinforcement

When a consequence causes a behavior to increase

Punishment

When a consequence causes a behavior to decrease

Positive Reinforcement

We perform behaviors to obtain or add pleasant consequences; are always rewarding

Negative Reinforcement

We perform behaviors that make things we dislike go away

Primary Reinforcer

Biologically based or necessary for survival

Secondary Reinforcer

Have been reliably associated with Primary Reinforcers (money)

Positive Punishment

Target behavior decreases because its followed by the addition of an unwanted stimulus (getting spanked)

Negative Punishment

Target behavior decreases because it results in the loss of a desired stimulus (take away favorite toy)

Avoidance Learning

When an organism learns a response in order to avoid experiencing an unpleasant stimulus

Escape Learning

Learning to perform a behavior to terminate an ongoing, unwanted stimulus

Intrinsic Consequences

Natural consequences that come with part of a job/task

Extrinsic Consequences

Consequences are extra, you do something because you get a reward

Fixed-Interval Schedule

Where a reinforcer is only available after a certain amount of time (interval) has passed, regardless of how often a behavior is performed

Variable-Interval Schedule

A reinforcer is available after varying amounts of time (intervals) have passed, regardless of how often the behavior is performed

Fixed-Ratio Schedule

Where a behavior must be performed a certain (fixed) number of times before it is reinforced

Interval-Ratio Schedule

A behavior must be performed a certain number of times before its reinforced; the number of times the behavior needs to occur before reinforcement is not fixed but varies around a given average

Reinforce

Refer to any stimulus which strengthens or increases the probability of a specific response

Reward

Describe the positive value than an individual gives to an object

Differential Reinforcement of Incompatible Behavior (DRI)

Avoids the use of punishment to decrease undesired behavior, by using positive reinforcement to increase desired behavior incompatible with the unwanted behavior

Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior (DRO)

Any acceptable behavior other than the undesired targer behavior is reinforced, thereby reducing the undesirable behavior without using punishment

Differential High Rates of Behavior (DRH)

Aims to increase target behavior within a specific time period

Differential Low Rates of Behavior (DRL)

Used to obtain lower rates of a particular behavior without eliminating a behavior completely

Countercontrol

Opposition or resistance in response to intervention

Passive-Aggression

A masked way of expression feelings of anger

Time-Out Technique

Behavioral modification that temporarily separates a person from an environment where unacceptable behavior has occured

The Premack Principle

Behaviors naturally occurring at high rates could be used to increase behaviors occurring at low rates (use a reward to increase an unwanted behavior)

Shaping / Successive Approximations

Sequential reinforcement of behaviors that reflect successive steps to the occurrence of a more complex target behavior

Superstitious Behavior

Belief in a causal relationship between an action, object, or ritual and an unrelated outcome

Classical-Operant Conditioning Overlap

When kids run after an ice cream truck, their reflexive (autonomic) salivation is classically conditioned to the sound of the music and sight of the truck while their voluntary (somatic) running and buying are operant actions

Vicarious Reinforcement

Tendency to repeat or duplicate behaviors for which others are being rewarded

Vicarious Punishment

Tendency not to repeat behaviors when others are punished for performing

Latent Learning

When behavior is learned but not displayed, often because reinforcing consequences are not available

Instincts

A complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unrelated

Drive Reduction Theory

The idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension stage (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need

Homeostasis

A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry around a particular level

Biological Needs

Physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, self-actualization, self-transcendence (in order of increasing importance)

Incentives

A positive environmental stimulus that motivates behavior

Discentives

Negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior

Arousal and Performance

Major aspect of many learning theories and is closely related to other concepts such as anxiety, attention, agitation, stress, and motivation

The Yerkes-Dodson Law (1908)

The principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases

Social Facilitation (audience effect)

The tendency for people to perform differently when in the presence of others that when alone

Social Inhibition

Conscious or subconscious avoidance of a situation or social interaction

Self-Actualization

Realizing our full potential

Self-Transcendence

Strive for meaning, purpose, and communion in a way that is transpersonal beyond the self

Affiliation Need

The need to build relationships and to feel part of a group

Ostracism

Deliberate social exclusion of individuals or groups

Impact of Social Networking

Depression, attachment, anxiety, self-identity, belongingness, perceived social closeness, group membership

Grit

Passionate dedication to an ambitious, long-term goal

Self-Motivation

Ability to do what needs to be done, without influence from other people or situations

Achievement Motivation

A desire for significant accomplishment; for mastery of skills or ideas; for control; and for attaining a high standard

The Marshmallow Test & EQ

Series of studies on delayed gratification in the late 1960s and early 1970s

Emotional Intelligence

The ability to recognize, understand and manage our own emotions; the ability to recognize, understand and influence the emotions of others

Set Point

The point at which your "weight thermostat" is supposedly set; when your body falls below this weight, increased hunger and lower metabolic rate may combine to restore the lost weight

Settling Point

Weight is maintained when the various metabolic feedback loop, which are "fine-tuned" by the relevant genes, settle into an equilibrium with the environment

Emotion

A response of the whole organism, involving 1) physiological arousal, 2) expressive behaviors, and 3) conscious experience

James Lange Theory

The theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to an emotion-arousing stimulus

Cannon-Bard Theory

The theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers 1) physiological responses and 2) the subjective experience of emotion

Cognitive Appraisal

The theory in psychology that emotions are extracted from our evaluations (appraisals or estimates) of events that cause specific reactions in different people; our appraisal of a situation causes emotional, or effective response that is going to be based on that appraisal

Gender Differences

Differences in the mental functions and behaviors of the sexes, and are due to a complex interplay of biological, developmental, and cultural factors

Detecting Emotions

The task of recognizing a person's emotional state across both voice and non-voice channels (women better than men)

Expressing Emotions

Expressions in people while talking observably verbal and nonverbal behaviors are that communicate an internal emotional or effective state (women better than men)

Individualistic Culture (USA)

A society which is characterized by individualism, which is the prioritization, or emphasis, of the individual over the entire group

Facial Feedback Effect

The tendency of facial muscles states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness

Smile Therapy

Smiling will cause others to smile, creating a positive energy

Stress

The process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging

Distress

Unpleasant feelings or emotions that impact your level of function

Cognitive Appraisal: Threat vs Challenge

During a stressful event, one will either decide it's a threat = stressed to distraction, or decide it's a challenge = aroused, focused

Stressors

Things that push our buttons; three main types: catastrophes, life changes, daily hassles

Stressor: Catastrophes

Unpredictable large-scale events (earthquakes, floods, wildfires, storms), can significantly damage emotional and physical health

Stressor: Life Changes

Leaving home, becoming divorced, losing a job, having a loved one die. Stressful life transitions.

Alarm-Phase 1

Your sympathetic nervous system is suddenly activated, you're fully engaged

Stressor: Daily Hassles

Spotty phone connection, aggravating housemates, long lines, too many things to do, email and text spam, and loud talkers; if piled up they can take a toll on health and well-being

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

Selye's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in three phases

Resistance-Phase 2

Your adrenal glands pump hormones into your bloodstream

Exhaustion-Phase 3

You become more vulnerable to illness or even in extreme cases, collapse and death

Collectivistic Culture (China)

A society which is characterized by an emphasis on the needs and goals of the group as a whole over the needs and desires of each individual

Impacts of Distress

Weakened Immune System, cancer and heart disease, anger management

Catharsis

The idea the "releasing" aggressive energy (though action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges

Impacts of Distress on Type-A Personalities

More competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people

Impacts of Distress on Type-B Personalities

More easygoing, relaxed people

Impacts of Distress on Type-D Personalities

Suppressing negative emotions to avoid social disapproval

Coping

Alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods

Problem Focused

Attempting to alleviate stress directly-by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor

Emotion Focused

Attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to our stress reaction

Personal Control

Know you're in control and can handle the situation you're in