Jack L. Snyder, Myths of Empire: Domestic Politics and International Ambition (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991), 1-13, 31-60

why is over expansion so common among great powers?

• many states exaggerate the benefits of expansion while underestimating its costs

• overexpansion is fueled by myths that justify imperial policies, despite historical failures

key myths that justify expansion

1. expansion strengthens the state

2. the defense is good offense

3. threats will make other states compliant

4. security through expansion is effective —> but this contradicts:

   1. balance of power

   2. rising cost of expansion

offensive realism thinks

offensive action contributes to security

defensive realism thinks

expansion undermines security

“myths of empire”

rationalizations by groups that benefit from expansion

“myths of empire” groups

• military-industrial complex

• political elites

• think tanks and media aligned with expansionist goals

how group sell imperial myths?

propaganda

propaganda advantages

• control over information

• organizational and material resources

• dominance in political discourse

who pays the price?

• state leaders and the public are often manipulated into supporting costly expansion

• the ruling class can profit modestly from imperial activities while shifting costs into taxpayers

systems prone to expansion

1. cartelized political systems —> most prone to imperial expansion

2. unitary oligarchies —> less prone to overexpansion

cartelized political systems

—> most prone to imperial expansion

• multiple powerful interest groups with concentrated interests

• groups benefiting from expansion can dominate state policy

unitary oligarchies

—> less prone to over expansion

• one dominant ruling group with shared interests

• less internal competition = fewer incentives for reckless expansion

realist overexpansion explanation

• response of rational responses to security threats

• states miscalculate their ability to maintain empire due to anarchy

cognitive overexpansion explanation

• leaders hold distorted beliefs about the benefits of expansion

• overconfidence and historical misinterpretations lead to bad decisions

coalition politics and ideology overexpansion explanation

• expansion is driven by domestic political coalitions

• interest groups push for policies that benefit them, not the state

imperial myths persist

because powerful groups benefit from them

competiting interest groups

cartelized systems

overexpansion is explained by 3 major theories

1. realist

2. cognitive

3. coalition politics

overexpansion is often not about security

but domestic political interests