psychology; issues and debates

Determinism

The view that all behaviour is caused by internal or external forces and is outside an individual’s free will.

Free Will

The idea that individuals are self-determining and able to make choices independently of biological or environmental influences.

Hard Determinism

The belief that all behaviour is caused by factors beyond our control and free will is an illusion.

Soft Determinism

The view that behaviour is constrained by internal or external forces but individuals still have conscious choice, meaning free will and determinism can coexist.

Biological Determinism

The belief that behaviour is caused by biological factors such as genes, hormones, brain structure and neurochemistry.

Environmental Determinism

The belief that behaviour is caused by environmental influences such as conditioning, upbringing and social learning.

Psychic Determinism

The Freudian view that behaviour is caused by unconscious drives and childhood experiences.

Nature

The view that behaviour is influenced by innate biological factors such as genes and neurochemistry.

Nurture

The view that behaviour is influenced by environmental factors such as experience, upbringing and culture.

Heredity

The genetic transmission of traits and characteristics from parents to offspring.

Innate

Inborn characteristics present at birth and determined by genetic factors.

Evolution

The process by which inherited characteristics that increase survival and reproduction are passed on through natural selection.

Natural Selection

The process by which traits that increase an organism’s chances of survival and reproduction are more likely to be inherited.

Interactionist Approach

The view that behaviour is the result of an interaction between biological and environmental influences.

Diathesis-Stress Model

An interactionist explanation suggesting a disorder develops due to a biological vulnerability triggered by environmental stress.

Reductionism

Explaining complex behaviour by breaking it down into simpler component parts.

Biological Reductionism

Explaining behaviour in terms of genes, brain structure, hormones or neurochemistry.

Environmental Reductionism

Explaining behaviour in terms of stimulus-response links and conditioning.

Machine Reductionism

Explaining human behaviour by comparing the mind to a computer and information processing systems.

Holism

The view that behaviour should be studied as a whole system, taking into account social and environmental context.

Gender Bias

The differential treatment or representation of males and females in research.

Alpha Bias

A type of gender bias that exaggerates differences between males and females.

Beta Bias

A type of gender bias that minimises or ignores differences between males and females.

Cultural Bias

The tendency to judge other cultures by the standards and values of one’s own culture.

Ethnocentrism

Viewing one’s own culture as superior and using it as a standard to judge other cultures.

Cultural Relativism

The view that behaviour should be understood within the context of the culture in which it occurs.

Idiographic Approach

An approach that focuses on the study of individuals and emphasises unique personal experiences.

Nomothetic Approach

An approach that aims to establish general laws of behaviour through the study of large groups and statistical analysis.

Ethical Issues

Concerns in research relating to the rights, dignity and welfare of participants.

Informed Consent

Participants must agree to take part in a study with full knowledge of its nature and purpose.

Deception

Deliberately misleading participants about the true aims of a study.

Protection from Harm

Participants should not experience physical or psychological harm greater than that encountered in everyday life.

Confidentiality

Personal information about participants must remain private and secure.

Right to Withdraw

Participants have the right to leave a study at any time and withdraw their data.

Debriefing

Providing participants with full information about the study after participation.

Socially Sensitive Research

Research that has potential social consequences for participants or the wider society.

Animal Research

The use of non-human animals in psychological experiments to investigate behaviour and biological processes.

Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986

UK legislation regulating the use of animals in research to ensure humane treatment.

Replacement

Using alternatives to animals wherever possible in research.

Reduction

Using the minimum number of animals necessary to achieve valid results.

Refinement

Modifying research procedures to minimise pain, suffering and distress to animals.

Hard Determinism – Why is hard determinism considered compatible with a scientific approach?

Because science assumes all events, including behaviour, have identifiable causes that can be studied objectively.

Hard Determinism – What is a limitation of hard determinism for the legal system?

If behaviour is entirely determined, it challenges the concept of moral responsibility and undermines the basis of punishment.

Free Will – What research evidence challenges the existence of free will?

Libet’s (1983) research found brain activity occurred before conscious awareness of decision-making, suggesting behaviour may be initiated unconsciously.

Free Will – Why is belief in free will socially desirable?

Roberts et al. (2020) found belief in free will is associated with better mental health and higher commitment to goals.

Soft Determinism – Why is soft determinism more consistent with the criminal justice system?

It recognises behaviour is influenced by causal factors but allows individuals to be held morally responsible for their actions.

Nature – What evidence supports the nature side of the debate?

Twin studies (e.g., concordance rates for schizophrenia) show higher similarity in monozygotic twins than dizygotic twins, suggesting genetic influence.

Nurture – What evidence supports the nurture side of the debate?

Research into conditioning (e.g., behaviourism) demonstrates that behaviour can be learned through environmental experience.

Interactionist Approach – Why is the interactionist approach seen as more valid?

Because research (e.g., diathesis-stress model in psychopathology) shows behaviour typically results from an interaction between genetic vulnerability and environmental triggers.

Epigenetics – How does epigenetics contribute to the nature–nurture debate?

It shows environmental factors can influence gene expression without altering DNA sequence, supporting an interactionist perspective.

Reductionism – Why is reductionism considered scientific?

It allows behaviour to be broken into measurable components, enabling controlled experimentation and hypothesis testing.

Biological Reductionism – What is a criticism of biological reductionism?

It ignores higher-level social and environmental influences, potentially oversimplifying complex behaviours.

Environmental Reductionism – What is a limitation of environmental reductionism?

It neglects cognitive and biological mediating processes in explaining behaviour.

Holism – Why is holism considered more realistic?

It considers the complexity of human behaviour within social and environmental contexts.

Holism – What is a limitation of holism?

It is difficult to test empirically because variables cannot easily be isolated or operationalised.

Levels of Explanation – What does the levels of explanation debate argue?

Behaviour can be explained at different levels (biological, psychological, social), and no single level provides a complete account.

Idiographic Approach – What is a key strength of the idiographic approach?

It produces rich, detailed qualitative data that can generate new hypotheses.

Idiographic Approach – What is a limitation of the idiographic approach?

It lacks generalisability and predictive power due to small, unique samples.

Nomothetic Approach – Why is the nomothetic approach considered scientific?

It uses standardised methods, large samples, and statistical analysis to establish general laws.

Nomothetic Approach – How do the idiographic and nomothetic approaches complement each other?

Idiographic research can generate hypotheses that are later tested using nomothetic methods.

Gender Bias – What is androcentrism?

A form of gender bias where male behaviour is treated as the norm and female behaviour as abnormal or inferior.

Alpha Bias – How can alpha bias have negative social consequences?

It may exaggerate gender differences and reinforce stereotypes.

Beta Bias – How can beta bias disadvantage women?

By assuming findings from male samples apply equally to females, potentially ignoring important differences.

Reflexivity – How can researchers reduce gender bias?

By acknowledging personal biases and considering how their values influence research design and interpretation.

Cultural Bias – What evidence demonstrates cultural bias in psychology?

Many psychological theories were developed using Western, individualist samples, limiting cross-cultural validity.

Ethnocentrism – Why is ethnocentrism problematic in research?

It assumes one culture’s norms are universal, potentially misrepresenting other cultures.

Cultural Relativism – Why is cultural relativism important for validity?

It ensures behaviour is understood within its cultural context, improving cross-cultural generalisability.

Socially Sensitive Research – Why is research into intelligence socially sensitive?

Findings may be misused to justify discrimination or social inequality.

Sieber and Stanley (1988) – What are the three areas of concern in socially sensitive research?

Implications of research, public policy implications, and the treatment of participants.

Social Responsibility – What is the social responsibility of psychologists?

To consider how findings may be interpreted, applied, or misused in society.

Animal Research – Why are animals used in psychological research?

They allow greater experimental control and investigation of biological processes not ethically possible with humans.

Animal Research – What is a key limitation of animal research?

Species differences may limit the extent to which findings can be generalised to humans.

Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986 – What does this legislation ensure?

That animal research is regulated, justified, and conducted with minimal suffering.

Replacement – What is replacement in animal research?

Using non-animal alternatives where possible.

Reduction – What is reduction in animal research?

Using the smallest number of animals necessary.

Refinement – What is refinement in animal research?

Modifying procedures to minimise pain, distress, and suffering.

what is the nature vs nurture debate

the extent to which aspects of behaviour is either a result of inherited characteristics or our environment

which study supports nature and what does it show

Gottesman and shields- twin studies and adoption studies, higher concordance rate of schizophrenia in MZ twins (58%) than in DZ twins (12%)

what does the interactionist approach consider

considers behaviour to be influenced by both nature and nurture

what are wider implications of nature

identify genetic cause - predict and get treatments

what does the reductionism vs holism debate focus on

extent to which we can explain complex behaviour in simple factors or wether we need to consider an individuals whole experience

what is a strength and weakness of reductionism

strength- biological explanations have led to the development of successful drug therapies

-it is more scientific the approach reduces complex behaviour

weaknes- if lower levels are taken in isolation then the meaning of behaviour may be overlooked, this may lead to fundamental errors

reducing mental illness to biological levels ignores the context and functions such as behaviour

what are the strengths and weaknesses of holism

strength- argues for all aspects of existence having an important part to play in explaining behaviour

weakness -there is not much concrete evidence to support holistic perspective

which study is an example of alpha bias and why

Bowlbys mono tropic theory -the role of the mother is overemphasised

which study is an example of beta bias and why

asch’s conformity theory- only used males in his sample but generalised his conclusion to the whole population

what does universality mean in psychology

the aim to develop theories that apply to all people which may include real life differences

what’s an example of cultural bias and why

aschs conformity theory as it was only carried out on participants in the US but the conclusion was generalised to the wider population

2 ways to reduce cultural bias in research

cross cultural research -carry out cross cultural research rather than with a sole culture

representative samples-do not attempt to extrapolate findings to cultures that are not represented in the research sample

what are strengths and weaknesses of idiographic approach

strength- you can get a detailed and global understanding of an individual

• studying one individual can lead to new ideas for more general research methadologies

• attention to detail makes participants feel valued

weakness -the data may be unreliable, its too subjective

• it is difficult to generalise to population as sample is too small

what are strengths and weaknesses of nomothetic

strengths- more scientific

• can lead to the construction of laws and theories that can be empirically tested

weaknesses- predictions about groups may not apply to all individuals within the group

• methodologies used can be accused of lacking ecological validity

what % of DNA do monkeys share with humans