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Bottom-up processing
analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information
Top-down processing
information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations
Schema
a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information
Perceptual Set
a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another
Gestalt psychology
a psychological approach that emphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts
Closure
the tendency to complete figures that are incomplete
Figure and ground
the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground).
proximity
the way relationships are formed between things close to one another
similarity
the tendency to perceive things that look similar to each other as being part of the same group
attention
focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events
selective attention
the ability to focus on only one stimulus from among all sensory input
cocktail party effect
Ability to concentrate on one voice amongst a crowd
inattentional blindness
failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere
Change blindness
failing to notice changes in the environment; a form of inattentional blindness
binocular depth cues
clues about distance based on the differing views of the two eyes
retinal disparity
a binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.
convergence
A binocular cue for perceiving depth; the extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object
monocular depth cues
aspects of a scene that yield information about depth when viewed with only one eye
relative clarity
a monocular cue for perceiving depth; hazy objects are farther away than sharp, clear objects
relative size
a monocular cue for perceiving depth; the smaller retinal image is farther away
texture gradient
the tendency for textured surfaces to appear to become smaller and finer as distance from the viewer increases
linear perspective
A monocular cue for perceiving depth; the more parallel lines converge, the greater their perceived distance.
interposition
if one object partially blocks our view of another, we perceive it as closer
apparent movement
An illusion of movement perception that occurs when stimuli in different locations are flashed one after another with the proper timing.
prototypes
a mental image or best example of a category
assimilation
interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas
accommodation
adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information
algorithms
very specific, step-by-step procedures for solving certain types of problems
heuristics
Mental shortcuts or "rules of thumb" that often lead to a solution (but not always).
representativeness heuristic
a mental shortcut whereby people classify something according to how similar it is to a typical case
availability heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common
mental set
a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past
priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
framing
the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.
gambler's fallacy
the belief that the odds of a chance event increase if the event hasn't occurred recently
sunk-cost fallacy
people make decisions about a current situation based on what they have previously invested in the situation
executive functions
higher order thinking processes that include planning, organizing, inhibition, and decision-making
creativity
the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas
divergent thinking
expands the number of possible problem solutions
convergent thinking
narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution
functional fixedness
the tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use
storage
the retention of encoded information over time
retrieval
the process of bringing to mind information that has been previously encoded and stored
Explicit memory
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"
Episodic Memory
the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place
Semantic memory
a network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world
Implicit memory
retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection
Procedural memory
a type of implicit memory that involves motor skills and behavioral habits
Prospective memory
remembering to do things in the future
Long-term potentiation
gradual strengthening of the connections among neurons from repetitive stimulation
Working memory model
describes short-term memory as a system with multiple components; suggests that short-term memory is dynamic and multifaceted
Primary memory system
hippocampus
working memory
A newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.
Central executive
the part of working memory that directs attention and processing
phonolgical loop
holds and retains verbal information. rehearsal. uniquely human characteristic. thought to evolve for learning of new languages.
Visuospatial sketchpad
A component of working memory where we create mental images to remember visual information
Long-term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.
Multi-store model
An explanation of memory based on three separate memory stores, and how information is transferred between these stores.
Sensory memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
Iconic memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
Echoic memory
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli
Automatic processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings
Effortful processing
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
Encoding
the processing of information into the memory system
Levels of processing model
the more deeply an item is encoded, the more meaning it has and the better it is remembered
Shallow encoding
encoding based on sensory characteristics, such as how something looks or sounds
Deep encoding
encoding based on an event's meaning as well as connections between the new event and past experience
Structural, phonemic, and semantic
three levels of processing
Mnemonic devices
techniques for using associations to memorize and retrieve information
Method of loci
A mnemonic technique that involves associating items on a list with a sequence of familiar physical locations
Chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
Categories
clusters of interrelated concepts
Hierarchies
A Social structure that organizes ranks people such as in a class system.
Spacing effect
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice
Memory consolidation
the gradual, physical process of converting new long-term memories to stable, enduring memory codes
Massed practice
a practice schedule in which studying continues for long periods, without interruption
Distributed Practice
spacing the study of material to be remembered by including breaks between study periods
Serial position effect
our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
Primacy effect
tendency to remember information at the beginning of a body of information better than the information that follows
Recency effect
tendency to remember recent information better than earlier information
short-term memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten
Maintenance rehearsal
A system for remembering involving repeating information to oneself without attempting to find meaning in it
Elaborative rehearsal
a method of transferring information from STM into LTM by making that information meaningful in some way
memory retention
ability to recall information
Autobiographical memory
the memory for events and facts related to one's personal life story
Retrograde amnesia
an inability to retrieve information from one's past
Anterograde amnesia
an inability to form new memories
Alzheimer's disease
a progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and, finally, physical functioning
Infantile amnesia
the inability to retrieve memories from much before age 3
Recognition
the ability to match a piece of information or a stimulus to a stored image or fact
Retrieval cues
Stimuli that are used to bring a memory to consciousness or into behavior
Context-dependent memory
The theory that information learned in a particular situation or place is better remembered when in that same situation or place.
Mood-congruent memory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood
State-dependent memory
The theory that information learned in a particular state of mind (e.g., depressed, happy, somber) is more easily recalled when in that same state of mind.
testing effect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information
metacognition
awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes.
Forgetting curve
a graphic depiction of how recall steadily declines over time
Encoding failure
the inability to recall specific information because of insufficient encoding of the information for storage in long-term memory
Proactive interference
the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information
Retroactive interference
the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information
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