• El utilitarismo establece que la felicidad es deseable, y que es la única cosa deseable como fin.

  • La felicidad ha demostrado ser uno de los fines de conducta, y, por tanto, uno de los criterios de la moral.

  • La gente no solo desea la felicidad, sino que nunca desea otra cosa.

• Los ingredientes de la felicidad son varios y cada uno de ellos es deseable por sí mismo.

  • Ejemplo: amor al dinero, al poder, a la fama.

  • Los medios se han convertido parte del fin.

• Si la naturaleza humana está constituida en forma que no desea nada que no sea una parte de la felicidad, entonces la felicidad es el único fin de los actos humanos.

  • La humanidad no desea nada por sí mima, excepto lo que constituye un placer.

• La voluntad es distinta del deseo.

  • Una persona de virtud confirmada lleva adelante sus propósitos sin pensar en el placer.

  • El deseo es sensibilidad pasiva, la voluntad es fenómeno activo.

• La virtud no es natural y originariamente parte del fin, pero puede llegar a serlo.

  • Se puede lograr que una persona que no tenga voluntad sea virtuosa al asociar el obrar bien con el placer.

• La voluntad es hija del deseo y sólo deja el dominio de su padre para pasar al del hábito.

  • El hábito es la única cosa que da certidumbre a la conducta y a los sentimientos.

SparkNotes

• Mill begins this chapter by saying that it is not possible to prove any first principles by reasoning.

  • How, then, can we know that utility is a foundational principle?

  • The purpose of this chapter is to explore what should be required of utilitarianism in order for it to be believed as valid.

  • Mill argues that the only proof that something is desirable is that people actually desire it.

  • It is a fact that happiness is a good, because all people desire their own happiness.

  • Thus, it is clear that happiness is at least one end, and one criterion, of morality.

• However, in order to show that happiness is the sole criterion for morality, it is necessary to show that people never desire anything but happiness.

  • Mill says that people do desire things like virtue, which in common language is distinguished from happiness.

  • However, Mill states that people love virtue only because it constitutes a part of happiness.

  • Mill argues that happiness is not an abstract idea, but a whole with component parts.

  • Because virtue is a part of happiness, and promotes the general happiness, utilitarianism encourages the development of virtue.

• Anything that is desired beyond being a means to happiness is desired because it is part of happiness.

  • Thus, Mill explains that proving utilitarianism is a psychological question.

  • The real issue is whether it is true that people only desire things that are part of happiness or a means to happiness.

  • This can only be answered by self-reflection and observation of others.

  • Mill contends that utilitarianism is true, and that impartial reflection will show that desiring something is the same thing as thinking it pleasant.

  • He argues that this is so obvious that he doubts it could be disputed.

  • The only possible refutation that could legitimately be made is that the moral will is something different than physical or emotional desire; virtuous people carry out actions without thought of such pleasures.

  • Mill admits that will is different than desire, and often becomes an end in itself.

  • However, all will originates in desire; if we will a thing that we now no longer desire, it is only by force of habit.

  • This does not change the fact that things are good to people only insofar as they lead to pleasure.

  • Mill then says that it leaves it to the "thoughtful reader" whether what he has said is true.

• Mill further expands his discussion of happiness in this chapter.

  • Recall that in Chapter 2, Mill argued that pleasures that were based on one's higher faculties were of a higher quality, and should be weighted accordingly.

  • In this way, he tried to expand the meaning of happiness to allow for different kinds of pleasure.

  • In Chapter 4 Mill expands the meaning of happiness again.

  • A possible objection to utilitarianism is that certain experiences could be integral parts of a compound happiness, not merely a means to a pure, elemental happiness.

  • Correspondingly, Mill argues now that utilitarianism can leave room for the fact that happiness consists of the other experiences that people value.

  • This idea of happiness as having "component parts" is an important expansion of the meaning of happiness by Mill.

• The other major argument in this chapter is that the motivation for all action is based on the fulfillment of desire.

  • However, he probably rightly contends that whether he is correct is an empirical question, a question answered by observing oneself and others.

  • This brings up an important question about the lines between psychology and philosophy.

  • If utilitarianism is based on the psychological make-up of human beings, then to what degree is it merely descriptive?

  • We tend to want philosophy to provide reasons why we should behave in a particular manner.

  • However, to note that we do behave in a certain manner is not necessarily to prove that we ought to behave that way.

  • One should consider at which points in the text Mill is observing how humans view the world, and at which points he is advocating a certain worldview.

  • What does his theory lose and gain from relying on psychological arguments? To what degree is it even possible to avoid a dependence upon description?