Neuroscience and Neuropsychology – Core Vocabulary

A comprehensive set of vocabulary flashcards covering anatomy, physiology, pathology, and key neuropsychological concepts from the lecture notes.

Coronal (frontal) plane

Brain section made side-to-side, giving a front-on view of internal structures.

Horizontal (axial) plane

Brain section cut flat through the middle; common in CT/MRI scans.

Mid-sagittal plane

Section that divides the brain into left and right halves, revealing mid-line structures.

Anterior

Directional label meaning toward the front of the brain.

Posterior

Directional label meaning toward the back of the brain.

Superior

Directional label meaning toward the top of the brain.

Inferior

Directional label meaning toward the bottom of the brain.

Dorsal

Refers to the top side of the spinal cord (back in four-legged posture).

Ventral

Refers to the bottom side of the spinal cord (belly in four-legged posture).

Medial

Closer to the mid-line of the brain.

Lateral

Farther from the mid-line; toward the outside of the brain.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Comprises the brain and spinal cord; site of higher processing and control.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

All neural tissue outside the CNS, including cranial and spinal nerves.

Autonomic Nervous System

PNS division controlling involuntary functions such as heart rate and digestion.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Autonomic branch mediating 'fight-or-flight' responses (increased heart rate, alertness).

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Autonomic branch mediating 'rest-and-digest' functions (slows heart, stimulates digestion).

Enteric Nervous System

Network within the gut that independently regulates digestion; the 'second brain'.

Meninges

Three protective membranes—dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater—that encase brain and spinal cord.

Dura mater

Tough, outermost meningeal layer; has periosteal and meningeal sub-layers.

Arachnoid mater

Web-like middle meningeal layer housing cerebrospinal fluid and blood vessels.

Pia mater

Delicate innermost meningeal layer that closely follows cortical folds.

Epidural space

Area between skull and dura that fills with blood in an epidural hematoma.

Subdural space

Potential space between dura and arachnoid where subdural hematomas occur.

Subarachnoid space

CSF-filled cavity between arachnoid and pia; cushioning and vascular passageway.

Meningitis

Inflammation of the meninges, often bacterial; rapid onset of headache, fever, neck stiffness.

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

Clear fluid produced by choroid plexus; provides buoyancy, protection, waste clearance, pressure regulation.

Choroid plexus

Specialised tissue in the ventricles that produces CSF.

Hydrocephalus

Disorder of excessive CSF accumulation causing increased intracranial pressure.

Brainstem

Inferior brain region (medulla, pons, midbrain) controlling vital autonomic functions.

Medulla oblongata

Brainstem part regulating respiration, cardiac function, reflexes like vomiting and sneezing.

Pons

Brainstem structure involved in respiration, chewing, swallowing, facial expression, eye movement.

Midbrain

Superior brainstem section governing vision/motor reflexes, arousal, temperature regulation.

Diencephalon

Region superior to brainstem containing thalamus and hypothalamus; forms walls of third ventricle.

Thalamus

Central relay station that directs sensory and motor signals to the cerebral cortex; involved in attention and consciousness.

Hypothalamus

Small diencephalic structure maintaining homeostasis, controlling autonomic and endocrine systems.

Cerebellum

'Little brain' coordinating balance, posture and fine-tuning motor activity; site of motor learning.

Sulcus (plural sulci)

Groove on the cerebral cortex surface increasing cortical area.

Gyrus (plural gyri)

Ridge between two sulci on the cerebral cortex.

Frontal lobe

Anterior cerebral cortex lobe for executive functions, voluntary movement, speech production (Broca).

Parietal lobe

Cortex lobe processing somatosensory input and spatial awareness.

Temporal lobe

Side lobe housing auditory cortex and hippocampus; essential for language comprehension (Wernicke) and memory.

Occipital lobe

Posterior lobe containing primary visual cortex (V1) for visual processing.

Primary Motor Cortex

Precentral gyrus initiating voluntary motor commands; arranged somatotopically.

Primary Somatosensory Cortex

Postcentral gyrus interpreting touch, pressure, temperature, pain; somatotopic map.

Broca’s area

Left inferior frontal gyrus region responsible for speech production.

Wernicke’s area

Posterior superior temporal gyrus region essential for language comprehension.

Basal ganglia

Deep cerebral nuclei (caudate, putamen, globus pallidus, etc.) modulating voluntary movement.

Substantia nigra

Midbrain nucleus supplying dopamine to basal ganglia; degenerates in Parkinson’s disease.

Nigrostriatal pathway

Dopaminergic tract from substantia nigra to striatum controlling movement.

Parkinson’s disease

Progressive disorder with dopamine loss causing tremor, rigidity, bradykinesia, postural deficits.

Levodopa (L-DOPA)

Dopamine precursor medication used to treat motor symptoms of Parkinson’s disease.

Deep Brain Stimulation

Therapy using implanted electrodes to modulate basal ganglia activity and reduce Parkinsonian tremor/rigidity.

Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

Autoimmune demyelinating disease causing sensory, motor and cognitive deficits.

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)

Motor neuron disease leading to progressive muscle weakness and loss of control.

Grey matter

Brain tissue composed mainly of neuronal cell bodies and synapses.

White matter

Myelinated axonal tracts connecting different brain regions.

Neuron

Electrically excitable cell transmitting information via action potentials and synapses.

Glial cell

Non-neuronal support cell providing nourishment, insulation, immune defense and modulating transmission.

Myelin sheath

Glial-derived fatty covering that speeds axonal conduction.

Node of Ranvier

Gap between myelin segments enabling saltatory conduction of action potentials.

Action potential

Rapid electrical impulse produced when membrane depolarisation reaches threshold.

Synapse

Junction where neurotransmitters transfer signals between neurons.

Excitatory neurotransmitter

Chemical messenger that increases likelihood of postsynaptic firing (e.g., glutamate, noradrenaline).

Inhibitory neurotransmitter

Messenger that decreases likelihood of postsynaptic firing (e.g., GABA).

Neuromodulator

Chemical released diffusely to regulate a population of neurons (e.g., dopamine, serotonin).

Commissural fibres

White-matter tracts (e.g., corpus callosum) that connect homologous areas across hemispheres.

Corpus callosum

Major commissure linking left and right cerebral hemispheres.

Callosal (split-brain) syndrome

Disconnection effects following corpus callosotomy, such as inability to name objects seen in left visual field.

Projection fibres

Axonal tracts linking cortex with subcortical structures, brainstem or spinal cord (e.g., corticospinal tract).

Association fibres

Tracts connecting regions within the same hemisphere (e.g., arcuate fasciculus).

Arcuate fasciculus

Association bundle linking Wernicke’s and Broca’s areas; damage causes conduction aphasia.

Limbic system

Interconnected structures (amygdala, hippocampus, cingulate gyrus) supporting emotion, memory, behaviour.

Amygdala

Limbic nucleus assigning emotional significance and generating affective responses.

Hippocampus

Medial temporal structure critical for forming new episodic memories.

Homunculus

Distorted body map representing cortical allocation to motor or sensory control.

Alien Hand Syndrome

Rare disorder where involuntary hand movements occur without conscious awareness.

Cerebellar ataxic gait

Wide-based, staggering walk due to cerebellar damage; risk of falls.

Corticospinal tract

Projection pathway carrying voluntary motor commands from cortex to spinal cord.

Phantom limb pain

Perceived pain in an amputated limb caused by cortical reorganisation and peripheral input loss.

Cranial nerves

Twelve nerve pairs emerging from the brain to supply head, neck and visceral organs.

Afferent (sensory) division

PNS pathway conveying sensory information toward the CNS.

Efferent (motor) division

PNS pathway transmitting CNS commands to muscles and glands.

Circle of Willis

Arterial ring at brain’s base interconnecting anterior and posterior circulations.

Internal carotid artery

Major vessel supplying anterior and middle cerebral territories.

Vertebral artery

Artery ascending through cervical spine to supply brainstem and posterior brain.

Middle cerebral artery (MCA)

Largest cerebral artery; supplies lateral frontal, parietal and temporal lobes.

Cerebral hypoxia

Insufficient oxygen delivery to brain; loss of consciousness within seconds, damage within minutes.

Blood–brain barrier (BBB)

Selective endothelial barrier protecting brain from pathogens and toxins while permitting nutrients.

Trojan horse drug delivery

Strategy of fusing drugs to transportable molecules to cross the BBB.

Diaphragmatic breathing

Controlled breathing technique that activates parasympathetic responses to reduce anxiety.