Chapter 2 How Sociologists Do Research

concrete experience

is obtained by seeing, touching, tasting, smelling and hearing

abstract experience

is the imaginary world of the mind

concepts

abstract terms used to organize concrete experience

propositions

ideas that result from finding the relationship between concepts

bias

systemic tendency to reach a certain type of conclusion or judgement

pseudoscience

involves claims and beliefs that sound scientific but do not meet the standards of the scientific method

objectivity

is assessed by the degree of consistency between the observations of independent observes

positivists

assume that social realities are objective and are best studied through quantitative research method

interpretivists

assume that social realities are subjectively constructed and are best studied through qualitative research method

deductive reasoning

begins with general ideas and proceeds to test their validity on specific cases

inductive reasoning

begins with concrete cases and proceeds to identify general patterns and themes

informed consent

is participants acknowledgment that they are aware of the risks of participation in research and are participating voluntarily

anonymity

occurs when a researcher cannot identify research subjects based on evidence

confidentiality

occurs when a researcher can identify research subjects by examining evidence but agrees not to do so

debriefing

involves interviewing participants after a study to clarify what occurred and deal with any fallout related to deception

operationalization

the process of translating concepts into variables and propositions into hypotheses

variable

measure of a concept that has more that has more than one value or score

hypothesis

testable form of a proposition

independent variable

presumed cause in a cause and effect relationship

dependent variable

presumed effect in a cause and effect relationship

experiment

carefully controlled artificial situation that allows researchers to isolate hypothesized causes and measure their effects precisely

randomization

experiment assigns individuals to the experimental or control group by chance processes to ensure that two groups are alike in all respects

experimental group

group that is exposed to the independent variable in an experiment

control group

that is not exposed to the independent variable

validity

degree to which results reflect reality

reliability

degree which procedures yield consistent results

survey

sociologists ask respondents questions and their knowledge, attitudes and behaviour either in a face to face or telephone, online

sample

part of population of research interest

population

entire group which researcher wants to generalize

probability sample

units have known and nonzero change of being selected

purposive sampling

involves researcher’s best judgement to locate members of the population of interest

snowball sampling

relies on existing participants to suggest additional subjects who might be willing to participate

reactivity

presence of researcher causes the observed people to conceal certain things or act artificially to impress the researcher

key informant

community members who are willing and able to provide credible information about an organization’s culture issues and activities

Structured interviews

Follows carefully crafted protocols to acquire the respondent’s view on predetermined subjects

Unstructured interviews

Resemble conversations with predfined themes and topics and allow respondents to answer questions in their own words

Exploratory research

Research that seeks to formulate theories about the subject of interest rather than test theories in rigorous manner of quantitative research

Focus group

Group interviews in which small numbers of individuals discuss a specific issue under the guidance of a moderator

Authenticity

Qualitative investigation captures social realities as experienced by insiders

Mixed methods

Combine qualitative and quantitative methods in a single study

Digital sociology

Uses digital technology as both a tool and subject of research

Non reactive

Methods involve studying social life without affecting the behaviour of the people involved

Social desirability bias

Error that results from respondents tendencies to answer in ways that will make them look favourable to the researcher