Child Development: Brain, Behavior, and Education Key Terms

myelination

The process by which axons become coated with myelin, a fatty substance that speeds the transmission of nerve impulses from neuron to neuron.

lateralization

Literally, "sidedness," referring to the specialization in certain functions by each side of the brain, with one side dominant for each activity. The left side of the brain controls the right side of the body, and vice versa.

corpus callosum

A long, thick band of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain and allows communication between them.

impulse control

The ability to postpone or deny the immediate response to an idea or behavior.

perseverate

To stay stuck, or persevere, in one thought or action for a long time. The ability to be flexible, switching from one task to another, is beyond most young children.

executive function

The cognitive ability to organize and prioritize the many thoughts that arise from the various parts of the brain, allowing the person to anticipate, strategize, and plan behavior.

theory-theory

The idea that children attempt to explain everything they see and hear by constructing theories.

theory of mind

A person's theory of what other people might be thinking. In order to have a theory of mind, children must realize that other people are not necessarily thinking the same thoughts that they themselves are. That realization seldom occurs before age 4.

preoperational intelligence

Piaget's term for cognitive development between the ages of about 2 and 6; it includes language and imagination (which involve symbolic thought), but logical, operational thinking is not yet possible at this stage.

egocentrism

Piaget's term for children's tendency to think about the world entirely from their own personal perspective.

animism

The belief that natural objects and phenomena are alive, moving around, and having sensations and abilities that are humanlike.

conservation

The principle that the amount of a substance remains the same (i.e., is conserved) even when its appearance changes.

zone of proximal development (ZPD)

Vygotsky's term for the skills — cognitive as well as physical — that a person can exercise only with assistance, not yet independently.

scaffolding

Temporary support that is tailored to a learner's needs and abilities and aimed at helping the learner master the next task in a given learning process.

overimitation

When a person imitates an action that is not a relevant part of the behavior to be learned. Overimitation is common among 2- to 6-year-olds when they imitate adult actions that are irrelevant and inefficient.

fast-mapping

The speedy and sometimes imprecise way in which children learn new words by tentatively placing them in mental categories according to their perceived meaning.

overregularization

The application of rules of grammar even when exceptions occur, making the language seem more "regular" than it actually is.

pragmatics

The practical use of language that includes the ability to adjust language communication according to audience and context.

Montessori schools

Schools that offer early-childhood education based on the philosophy of Maria Montessori, which emphasizes careful work and tasks that each young child can do.

Reggio Emilia

A program of early-childhood education that originated in the town of Reggio Emilia, Italy, and that encourages each child's creativity in a carefully designed setting.

Waldorf

An early-childhood education program than emphasizes creativity, social understanding, and emotional growth. It originated in Germany with Rudolf Steiner, and now is used in thousands of schools throughout the world

Head Start

A federally funded early-childhood intervention program for low-income children of preschool age.

emotion regulation

The ability to control when and how emotions are expressed.

effortful control

The ability to regulate one's emotions and actions through effort, not simply through natural inclination.

initiative versus guilt

Erikson's third psychosocial crisis, in which young children undertake new skills and activities and feel guilty when they do not succeed at them.

intrinsic motivation

A drive, or reason to pursue a goal, that comes from inside a person, such as the joy of reading a good book.

extrinsic motivation

A drive, or reason to pursue a goal, that arises from the wish to have external rewards, perhaps by earning money or praise.

empathy

The ability to understand and appreciate the emotions and concerns of another person, especially when they differ from one's own.

antisocial behavior

Actions that are deliberately hurtful or destructive to another person.

Actions that are deliberately hurtful or destructive to another person.

Any play that may cause injury to the child. It includes rough-and-tumble play, wrestling, climbing trees, sledding, etc.

rough-and-tumble play

Play that seems to be rough, as in play wrestling or chasing, but in which there is no intent to harm.

sociodramatic play

Pretend play in which children act out various roles and themes in plots or roles that they create.

sex differences

Biological differences between males and females, in organs, hormones, and body shape.

gender differences

Differences in male and female roles, behaviors, clothes, and so on that arise from society, not biology.

transgender

A broad term for people whose gender identity and/or gender expression differ from what is typically expected of the sex they were assigned at birth.

authoritarian parenting

An approach to child rearing that is characterized by high behavioral standards, strict punishment of misconduct, and little communication from child to parent.

permissive parenting

An approach to child rearing that is characterized by high nurturance and communication but little discipline, guidance, or control.

authoritative parenting

An approach to child rearing in which the parents set limits and enforce rules but are flexible and listen to their children.

neglectful/

uninvolved parenting

An approach to child rearing in which the parents seem indifferent toward their children, not knowing or caring about their children's lives.

psychological control

A disciplinary technique that involves threatening to withdraw love and support, using a child's feelings of guilt and gratitude.

time-out

A disciplinary technique in which a person is separated from other people and activities for a specified time.

induction

A disciplinary technique that involves explaining why a particular behavior was wrong. To be successful, explanation must be within the child's ability to understand.

injury control/harm reduction

Practices that are aimed at anticipating, controlling, and preventing dangerous activities; these practices reflect the beliefs that accidents are not random and that injuries can be made less harmful if proper controls are in place.

primary prevention

Actions that change overall background conditions to prevent some unwanted event or circumstance, such as injury, disease, or abuse.

secondary prevention

Actions that avert harm in a high-risk situation, such as installing sidewalks and traffic lights.

tertiary prevention

Actions, such as immediate and effective medical treatment, that are taken after an adverse event (such as illness or injury) and that are aimed at reducing harm or preventing disability.

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child maltreatment

Intentional harm to or avoidable endangerment of anyone under 18 years of age.

substantiated maltreatment

Harm or endangerment that has been reported, investigated, and verified.

reported maltreatment

Harm or endangerment about which someone has notified the authorities.

permanency planning

An effort by child-welfare authorities to find a long-term living situation that will provide stability and support for a maltreated child. A goal is to avoid repeated changes of caregiver or school, which can be particularly harmful to the child.

foster care

A legal, publicly supported system in which a maltreated child is removed from the parents' custody and entrusted to another adult or family, who is reimbursed for expenses incurred in meeting the child's needs.

kinship care

A form of foster care in which a relative of a maltreated child, usually a grandparent, becomes the approved caregiver.

concrete operational thought

Piaget's term for the ability to reason logically about direct experiences and perceptions.

classification

The logical principle that things can be organized into groups (or categories or classes) according to some characteristic that they have in common.

reaction time

The time it takes to respond to a stimulus, either physically (with a reflexive movement such as an eyeblink) or cognitively (with a thought).

automatization

A process in which repetition of a sequence of thoughts and actions makes the sequence routine so that it no longer requires conscious thought.

neurodiversity

The idea that each person has neurological strengths and weaknesses that should be appreciated, in much the same way diverse cultures and ethnicities are welcomed.

hidden curriculum

The unofficial, unstated, or implicit patterns within a school that influence what children learn. For instance, teacher background, organization of the play space, and tracking are all part of the hidden curriculum — not formally prescribed, but instructive to the children.

Flynn effect

The rise in average IQ scores over the decades in many nations.

comorbid

Refers to the presence of two or more unrelated disease conditions at the same time in the same person.

multifinality

A basic principle of developmental psychopathology that holds that one cause can have many (multiple) final manifestations.

equifinality

A basic principle of developmental psychopathology that holds that one symptom can have many causes.

attention-deficit/

hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

A condition characterized by a persistent pattern of inattention and/or by hyperactive or impulsive behaviors; ADHD interferes with a person's functioning or development.

specific learning disorder

A marked deficit in a particular area of learning that is not caused by an apparent physical disability, by an intellectual disability, or by an unusually stressful home environment.

dyslexia

Unusual difficulty with reading; thought to be the result of some neurological underdevelopment.

dyscalculia

Unusual difficulty with math, probably originating from a distinct part of the brain.

autism spectrum disorder (ASD)

A developmental disorder marked by difficulty with social communication and interaction — including difficulty seeing things from another person's point of view — and restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities.

individualized education plan (IEP)

A document that specifies educational goals and plans for a child with intellectual disabilities.

response to intervention (RTI)

An educational strategy intended to help children who demonstrate below-average achievement in early grades, using special intervention.

industry versus inferiority

The fourth of Erikson's eight psychosocial crises, during which children attempt to master many skills, developing a sense of themselves as either industrious or inferior, competent or incompetent.

social comparison

The tendency to assess one's abilities, achievements, social status, and other attributes by measuring them against those of other people, especially one's peers.

resilience

The capacity to adapt well to significant adversity and to overcome serious stress.

family structure

The legal and genetic relationships among relatives living in the same home. Possible structures include nuclear family, extended family, stepfamily, single-parent family, and many others.

family function

The way a family works to meet the needs of its members. Children need families to provide basic material necessities, to encourage learning, to help them develop self-respect, to nurture friendships, and to foster harmony and stability.

extended family

A family of relatives in addition to the nuclear family, usually three or more generations living in one household.

aggressive-rejected

A type of childhood rejection, when other children do not want to be friends with a child because of that child's antagonistic, confrontational behavior.

withdrawn-rejected

A type of childhood rejection, when other children do not want to be friends with a child because of their timid, withdrawn, and anxious behavior.

bullying

Repeated, systematic efforts to inflict harm on other people through physical, verbal, or social attack.

preconventional moral reasoning

Kohlberg's first level of moral reasoning, emphasizing rewards and punishments.

conventional moral reasoning

Kohlberg's second level of moral reasoning, emphasizing social rules.

postconventional moral reasoning

Kohlberg's third level of moral reasoning, emphasizing moral principles.