Foundations Unit: Scientific Practices of Psychology and Related Concepts

These flashcards cover key terms and definitions from foundational psychological concepts and methods.

Cultural norms

Shared guidelines or expectations within a group regarding appropriate behavior.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, or remember information in a way that confirms one’s preconceptions.

Hindsight bias

The inclination to see events as having been predictable after they have already occurred.

Overconfidence

A cognitive bias characterized by an overestimation of one's own abilities or knowledge.

Independent variables

Variables that are manipulated in an experiment to test their effects on dependent variables.

Confounding variables

Variables that can obscure or alter the results of an experiment by influencing both the independent and dependent variables.

Dependent variables

Outcomes or responses measured in an experiment to see if they change due to manipulations of independent variables.

Random assignment

The random allocation of participants to different groups in an experiment to ensure each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any group.

Case study

A research method involving a detailed analysis of a person or group.

Correlation

A statistical measure that describes the extent to which two variables are related.

Positive Correlation

A relationship in which both variables move in the same direction.

Negative Correlation

A relationship in which one variable increases as the other decreases.

Meta-analysis

A statistical procedure that consolidates findings from multiple studies to identify patterns or effects.

Naturalistic observation

A research method where subjects are observed in their natural environment without interference.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction about the relationship between two or more variables.

Falsifiable

A property of a hypothesis that allows it to be proven wrong by evidence.

Operational definitions

Specific explanations of abstract concepts that a researcher will measure or manipulate in a study.

Replication

The process of repeating a research study to see if the original findings are consistent.

Central tendency

A statistical measure that identifies a single score as representative of an entire distribution.

Mean

The average of a set of numbers, calculated by dividing the sum of the numbers by the count of numbers.

Median

The midpoint value in a data set that separates the higher half from the lower half.

Mode

The most frequently occurring value in a data set.

Standard deviation

A measure of the amount of variation or dispersion in a set of values.

Placebo effect

A psychological phenomenon where a patient experiences perceived or actual improvement in their condition due to believing they are receiving treatment.

Social desirability bias

The tendency of respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others.

Qualitative research

Research that focuses on understanding concepts, thoughts, or experiences.

Quantitative research

Research that involves the use of structured tools to collect measurable data.

Peer review

A process where experts evaluate a study or paper before it is published.

Statistical significance

A mathematical indication that the results of an analysis are unlikely to have occurred by chance.

Theory

An explanation that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events based on integrated principles.

Double-blind procedure

An experimental procedure where both the research participants and the staff are ignorant about who received the treatment or a placebo.

Control group

The group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment, serving as a comparison for evaluating the effects of the independent variable.

Experimental group

The group in an experiment that is exposed to the treatment or the specific version of the independent variable being tested.

Population

The entire group of individuals from which a researcher draws a sample to study and generalize findings.

Random sample

A sample that fairly represents a population because every member has an equal chance of being selected for participation.

Range

A statistical measure of variation representing the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution (\text{Highest Value} - ext{Lowest Value}).

Survey

A technique for collecting self-reported data regarding attitudes or behaviors by questioning a representative sample of a group.

Informed consent

An ethical principle requiring that participants be told enough about a study to choose whether they wish to participate.

Debriefing

The post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, provided to the participants.

Cultural norms

Shared guidelines or expectations within a group regarding appropriate behavior.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, or remember information in a way that confirms one’s preconceptions.

Hindsight bias

The inclination to see events as having been predictable after they have already occurred.

Overconfidence

A cognitive bias characterized by an overestimation of one's own abilities or knowledge.

Independent variables

Variables that are manipulated in an experiment to test their effects on dependent variables.

Confounding variables

Variables that can obscure or alter the results of an experiment by influencing both the independent and dependent variables.

Dependent variables

Outcomes or responses measured in an experiment to see if they change due to manipulations of independent variables.

Random assignment

The random allocation of participants to different groups in an experiment to ensure each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any group.

Case study

A research method involving a detailed analysis of a person or group.

Correlation

A statistical measure that describes the extent to which two variables are related.

Positive Correlation

A relationship in which both variables move in the same direction.

Negative Correlation

A relationship in which one variable increases as the other decreases.

Meta-analysis

A statistical procedure that consolidates findings from multiple studies to identify patterns or effects.

Naturalistic observation

A research method where subjects are observed in their natural environment without interference.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction about the relationship between two or more variables.

Falsifiable

A property of a hypothesis that allows it to be proven wrong by evidence.

Operational definitions

Specific explanations of abstract concepts that a researcher will measure or manipulate in a study.

Replication

The process of repeating a research study to see if the original findings are consistent.

Central tendency

A statistical measure that identifies a single score as representative of an entire distribution.

Mean

The average of a set of numbers, calculated by dividing the sum of the numbers by the count of numbers.

Median

The midpoint value in a data set that separates the higher half from the lower half.

Mode

The most frequently occurring value in a data set.

Standard deviation

A measure of the amount of variation or dispersion in a set of values.

Placebo effect

A psychological phenomenon where a patient experiences perceived or actual improvement in their condition due to believing they are receiving treatment.

Social desirability bias

The tendency of respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others.

Qualitative research

Research that focuses on understanding concepts, thoughts, or experiences.

Quantitative research

Research that involves the use of structured tools to collect measurable data.

Peer review

A process where experts evaluate a study or paper before it is published.

Statistical significance

A mathematical indication that the results of an analysis are unlikely to have occurred by chance (p < .05).

Theory

An explanation that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events based on integrated principles.

Double-blind procedure

An experimental procedure where both the research participants and the staff are ignorant about who received the treatment or a placebo.

Control group

The group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment, serving as a comparison for evaluating the effects of the independent variable.

Experimental group

The group in an experiment that is exposed to the treatment or the specific version of the independent variable being tested.

Population

The entire group of individuals from which a researcher draws a sample to study and generalize findings.

Random sample

A sample that fairly represents a population because every member has an equal chance of being selected for participation.

Range

A statistical measure of variation representing the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution (\text{Highest Value} - \text{Lowest Value}).

Survey

A technique for collecting self-reported data regarding attitudes or behaviors by questioning a representative sample of a group.

Informed consent

An ethical principle requiring that participants be told enough about a study to choose whether they wish to participate.

Debriefing

The post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, provided to the participants.

Experiment

A research method where an investigator manipulates factors (independent variables) to observe effects on behavior or mental processes (dependent variables).

Sampling bias

A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample of the population.

Normal curve

A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve describing the distribution of data; approximately 68\% of scores fall within one standard deviation of the mean.

Skewed distribution

A representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value, appearing pulled toward one end.

Correlation coefficient

A statistical index of the relationship between two variables, ranging from -1.00 to +1.00.

Scatterplot

A graphed cluster of dots representing the values of two variables; the slope suggests the direction of the relationship.

Descriptive statistics

Numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups, including measures of central tendency and variation.

Inferential statistics

Numerical data that allow one to generalize or infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population.

Validity

The extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is intended to measure.

Reliability

The consistency of a research study or measuring test; the likelihood of achieving the same results upon replication.

Histogram

A bar graph depicting a frequency distribution where the height of the bars indicates frequency.

Illusory Correlation

Perceiving a relationship between variables even when no such relationship exists.

Regression Toward the Mean

The tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average.

Cross-sectional study

A research design that compares different groups of people (e.g., of different ages) at a single point in time.

Longitudinal study

A research design that follows and re-tests the same group of individuals over a long period.

Hawthorne effect

The tendency of individuals to modify their behavior simply because they know they are being observed.

Demand characteristics

Cues in an experiment that lead participants to guess the hypothesis and change their behavior accordingly.

Experimenter bias

When a researcher's expectations or preferences unintentionally influence the results of a study.

External validity

The extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other situations, people, or settings.

Internal validity

The degree to which an experiment establishes a cause-and-effect relationship between the variables, free from confounding factors.

Type I Error

A 'false positive' error where the researcher rejects a true null hypothesis (claiming an effect exists when it doesn't).

Type II Error

A 'false negative' error where the researcher fails to reject a false null hypothesis (failing to find an effect that actually exists).