Lymphatic and respiratory system

Lymph

Lymph is derived from plasma but has fewer dissolved

proteins

The purpose of lymph

washes over tissues to deliver nutrients and

remove wastes, cell debris, bacteria, viruses, and loose

(possible cancerous) cells.

why does lymph leave the blood vessel

due to blood pressure

how is lymph returned to blood stream

by open-ended

lymph vessels through the skeletal muscle action

this is an image of

valves in lymphatic vessels

Lymphatic collecting ducts return lymph to the

bloodstream where

at the subclavian veins.

what does this picture show

Anatomy of the Lymphatic System

Natural Killer (NK) cells

Cells of the Lymphatic System

Lymphocytes that destroy bacteria, fight against transplanted

tissues, attack virally infected cells, and destroy cancer cells

T cells are lymphocytes that are important because

they in help nonspecific

defense and specific immunity.

T-helper cells

Important for nonspecific defense and specific immunity

Recognize foreign pathogens and activate the cells to fight them

T-cytotoxic cells

Directly kill cells infected by viruses and cancer cells in specific

immunity

T-memory cells

Specific immunity

Allow repeat exposure to be fought more swiftly

B cells are lymphocytes that serve

as antigen-presenting

cells (APCs) and are important in humoral immunity

because they produce antibodies

B-plasma cells

Important in specific immunity

• Produce antibodies

• Dissolved proteins in plasma that seek out specific foreign antigens

for their destruction

B-memory cells

Pathogens that have been introduced to the body so that repeat

exposure can be fought more swiftly

Macrophages

Monocytes that have migrated to the tissues, where they

phagocytize bacteria, debris, and dead neutrophils

Dendritic cells

Located in the epidermis and serve as APCs

Lymph nodes

Filter lymph on its way back to the bloodstream

• Located throughout the body, but mainly in trunk:

• Cervical

• Axillary

• Thoracic

• Abdominal

• Pelvic

• Intestinal and mesenteric

• Popliteal

• Inguinal

this image shows

lymph node

Thymus gland

The thymus gland matures T cells that recognize foreign antigens,

and it destroys T cells that react to self-antigens.

• Largest in children

• Atrophies in adults

This image shows the BLANK in adults and children

Thymus gland

Spleen

Red pulp to store red blood cells

• Regulates the amount of fluid in the blood by transferring excess fluid to

the lymphatic system as lymph

• White pulp to store lymphocytes and macrophages

• Battle site for lymphocytes to attack pathogens

Three Lines of Defense

The three lines of defense against pathogens are:

1. External barriers

2. Inflammation, antimicrobial proteins, fever, and other active

attacks

3. Specific immunity

The first two lines are nonspecific defenses, while the third is BLANK

specific immunity

Nonspecific defenses

are widespread and function the

same way every time.

Specific immunity

requires a prior exposure to a

pathogen so that it can recognize, react, and remember

the pathogen.

This immunity reacts faster and stronger to repeated exposures

to a pathogen.

(Nonspecific Defenses)

External barriers include

the skin and mucous

membranes.

(Nonspecific Defenses)

Skin

Keratin is a tough protein that bacteria cannot easily break through.

• Skin is dry, with few nutrients for bacteria and other pathogens.

• The skin has an acid mantle, which makes it inhospitable for bacteria

and other pathogens.

(Nonspecific Defenses)

Mucous membranes

Mucus traps microbes.

• Mucus, tears, and saliva contain lysozymes to destroy pathogens.

• Deep to the mucous membranes is loose areolar connective tissue with

fibers to hamper the progress of pathogens.

(Nonspecific Defenses)

Inflammation functions to ….

limit the spread of pathogens, to

remove debris and damaged tissue, and to initiate tissue

repair

(Nonspecific Defenses)

Inflammation involves the release of…

vasodilators from damaged tissue and basophils and the margination, diapedesis, and chemotaxis of leukocytes that phagocytize pathogens along the way.

May form pus

In this image it shows

The Inflammatory Response

Fever

Nonspecific Defenses

Defense initiated by pyrogens from macrophages that cause the

hypothalamus to reset the body’s temperature.

Other attacks from leukocytes complete the list of

nonspecific defenses.

Neutrophils fight bacteria.

Basophils release histamine to promote inflammation.

Eosinophils attack worm parasites.

Monocytes become macrophages to phagocytize bacteria.

Humoral (antibody-mediated) immunity

Involves B cells producing antibodies

• T helper cells activate B cells by releasing interleukin-2.

• Stimulated B cells differentiate into plasma cells and

memory B cells.

Humoral (antibody-mediated) immunity

Primary immune response

• The first time you are exposed to the pathogen

• The response is slow; 3 to 6 days for activation and 10 more days

for peak antibody production.

Secondary immune response

Subsequent times exposed to the same pathogen

• Fast response; 2 to 5 days for peak response

• Due to the quick response, you usually don’t get “sick."

Cellular (Cell Mediated) immunity

T cytotoxic cells directly kill cells with foreign antigens

• Very effective against virally infected cells

• Both types of specific immunity require T helper cells to

recognize what is foreign.

involves the release of interleukin-1

Forms of Acquired Immunity

Passive

• Immunity acquired through someone or something else

Active

• Body actively creating its own immunity

Natural

• Immunity accomplished through naturally occurring means

Artificial

• Immunity not acquired naturally

Artificial active immunity

Artificial active immunity is achieved through vaccination, where the

body's immune system is exposed to a weakened or inactivated

form of a pathogen to produce antibodies and memory cells,

providing protection against future infection. This contrasts with

natural active immunity, which occurs when the body encounters a

live pathogen and fights it off.

Artificial passive immunity

Artificial passive immunity is conferred when a person is given pre-

made antibodies (immunoglobulin) from another person or animal,

rather than their own body producing them.

types of vaccines

Live attenuated vaccines:

-These vaccines contain a weakened or modified form

of the virus or bacteria that causes the disease. They

stimulate a strong immune response, often leading to long-

lasting immunity.

Inactivated vaccines:

-These vaccines use killed or inactivated versions of

the virus or bacteria. They are generally safe for people

with weakened immune systems, but may require booster

shots for continued protection

Functions of the Lymphatic System

The lymphatic system helps maintain the fluid balance in

the blood.

The lymphatic system distributes lymph to wash over

tissues to deliver nutrients and remove wastes.

The lymphatic system carries absorbed products of lipid

digestion.

Effects of Aging on the Lymphatic System

The thymus gland shrinks with age.

The number of new T cells decreases with age.

The immune response may slow with age.

Lymphatic System Disorders

Splenomegaly

Enlargement of the spleen that can be caused by any

number of pathological conditions, including anemia,

cancers, and certain infections.

Lymphatic System Disorders

Autoimmune disorders are the result of the immune system attacking self-antigens.

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA)

is a chronic autoimmune

disease where the body's

immune system

mistakenly attacks the

joints, leading to

inflammation, pain, and

potential damage.

Respiratory anatomy in the head

and neck

Nasal cavity > nose >

nasopharynx, oropharynx, and

laryngopharynx > larynx

Respiratory anatomy in the thoracic

cavity

> Trachea > main bronchi >

bronchial tree > bronchioles >

alveoli

Nasal Cavity

The mucous membranes of the nasal cavity warm and

moisturize the air and remove debris

Nasal conchae

provide extra surface area.

Vestibule

is the anterior part of the nasal cavity lined by

stratified squamous epithelial tissue with stiff guard hairs

to block debris from entering the respiratory tract.

Which system is this

THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Pharynx

The pharynx is composed of the nasopharynx,

oropharynx, and laryngopharynx.

The epithelial tissue varies in each part of the pharynx

based on the materials that travel through each area.

Larynx

The larynx is a cartilaginous box that contains the vocal cords.

• Thyroid cartilage

• Arytenoid cartilage

• Corniculate cartilage

Muscles in the larynx move cartilages that allow the vocal cords to

vibrate to produce sound.

Epiglottis

blocks the entrance to the trachea when swallowing

Labeling of which system

THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Lungs and the Bronchial Tree

Each main bronchus enters a lung and then further divides to form the bronchial tree.

• Lobar bronchi go to each lobe of the lung

• The left lung has two lobes and the right lung has three lobes due to

the position of the heart.

Labeling of ..

The lungs

Alveoli

Surfactant reduces the surface tension of water so that

alveoli do not collapse.

The respiratory membrane is composed of the thin layer of

water with surfactant in the alveoli, the single squamous

cell alveolar wall, and the single cell capillary wall.

Mechanics of Taking a Breath

Inspiration results from intercostal muscles and the diaphragm’s contracting to increase the volume of the thoracic cavity, thereby decreasing its pressure.

Air flows due to pressure gradients.

Pleural membranes cause the lung to expand with the

thoracic cavity.

Normal inspiration is caused by

contraction of the intercostal muscles and diaphragm.

• Forced inspiration involves additional muscles such as the

sternocleidomastoid and pectoralis minor.

Normal expiration is caused by

the relaxation of the intercostal muscles and diaphragm

A spirometer can be used

to measure lung volumes and lung capacities

Compliance measures

how well the lung can expand and return to shape.

• Decreased compliance in chronic obstructive pulmonary

disorders

Gas Exchange

Gas exchange happens between the alveoli and the

capillaries in the lung and between the capillaries and the

tissues of the body.

Gases diffuse across membranes because of a

concentration gradient until the concentrations on both

sides of the membrane are equal.

Factors that influence gas exchange

Concentration of the Gases

• Creates a gradient for diffusion

• Membrane area

• The greater the membrane area, the

greater the opportunity for diffusion.

• Membrane thickness

• Thicker membranes make gas

exchange more difficult.

• Solubility of the gas

• Must be soluble in water to diffuse

across the respiratory membrane

Lung perfusion (blood flow to

alveoli)

Alveolar capillaries constrict where the partial pressure of oxygen is low, so blood is diverted to where the partial pressure of oxygen is high.

Alveolar ventilation

(air flow to alveoli)

Bronchioles dilate if partial pressure of carbon dioxide

increases

Bronchioles constrict if the partial pressure of carbon dioxide

decreases