AP Psycholgy Unit 0 & 1 Flashcards

Frontal lobes

The portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments.

Parietal lobes

The portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position.

Occipital lobes

The portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields.

Temporal lobes

The portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear.

Motor cortex

An area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.

Somatosensory cortex

An area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.

Association areas

Areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking.

Neurogenesis

The formation of new neurons.

Corpus callosum

The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.

Consciousness

Our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment.

Cognitive neuroscience

The interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language).

Dual processing

The principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks.

Blindsight

A condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it, often due to damage in the visual cortex.

Parallel processing

The processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision.

Sequential processing

Processing one aspect of a problem at a time; generally used when we focus attention on new information or on solving difficult problems.

Sleep

A periodic, natural loss of consciousness—as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation.

Circadian rhythm

Our biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of wakefulness and body temperature) that occur on a 24-hour cycle.

REM sleep

Rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.

Alpha waves

The relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state.

NREM sleep

Non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep.

Hallucinations

False sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus.

Hypnagogic sensations

Frightening or startling hallucinations that occur during NREM-1 sleep; common sensations include falling or floating weightlessly.

Delta waves

The large, slow brain waves associated with deep NREM-3 sleep.

Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

A pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm. In response to light, the SCN causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness.

Insomnia

Recurring problems in falling or staying asleep.

Narcolepsy

A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.

Sleep apnea

A sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings.

REM sleep behavior disorder

A disorder where the paralysis that normally occurs during REM sleep is incomplete or absent, allowing the person to "act out" their dreams.

Dream

A sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind.

REM rebound

The tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep).

Sensation

The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment.

Sensory receptors

Specialized neurons that detect particular forms of energy or chemicals and transduce these into neural signals.

Perception

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events.

Bottom-up processing

Analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information. It is data-driven.

Top-down processing

Information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations. It is conceptually driven.

Transduction

The conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brain can interpret.

Psychophysics

The study of the relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them.

Absolute threshold

The minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time.

Signal detection theory

Predicts how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.

Subliminal

Below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness.

Priming

The activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response.

Difference threshold

The minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference (JND).

Weber

’s law

The principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount).

Sensory adaptation

Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation. This allows us to focus on informative changes in our environment without being distracted by uninformative constant stimulation.

Wavelength

The distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Determines the hue (color) of light.

Hue

The dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth.

Intensity

The amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude.

Cornea

The eye's clear, protective outer layer, covering the pupil and iris. Light first enters the eye through the cornea.

Pupil

The adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters.

Iris

A ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening.

Lens

The transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina.

Retina

The light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information.

Accommodation

The process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina.

Rods

Retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond.

Cones

Retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.

Optic nerve

The nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain.

Blind spot

The point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there.

Fovea

The central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster.

Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory

The theory that the retina contains three different color receptors—one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue—which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color.

Opponent-process theory

The theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision.

Feature detectors

Nerve cells in the brain's visual cortex that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement.

Audition

The sense or act of hearing.

Frequency

The number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (e.g., per second). Determines the perceived pitch of a sound.

Pitch

A tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency.

Middle ear

The chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window.

Cochlea

A coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses.

Inner ear

The innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs.

Sensorineural hearing loss

Hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness.

Conduction hearing loss

Hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea.

Cochlear implant

A device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea.

Place theory

In hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated.

Frequency theory

In hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch.

Gate-control theory

The theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain.

Gustation

The sense of taste.

Olfaction

The sense of smell.

Kinesthesis

The system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts.

Vestibular sense

The sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance.

Sensory interaction

The principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste.

Embodied cognition

The influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgments.

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Nature vs. Nurture

The long-standing controversy over the relative contributions that genes (nature) and experience (nurture) make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors.

Biopsychosocial Approach

An integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis to understand behavior and mental processes.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.

Neuron

A nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.

Action Potential

A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.

Plasticity (Neural Plasticity)

The brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience.

Selective Attention

The focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus among a myriad of stimuli.

Inattentional Blindness

Failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere.

Change Blindness

Failing to notice changes in the environment.

Thalamus

The brain's sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.

Hypothalamus

A neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.

Amygdala

Two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion, particularly fear and aggression.

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system; helps process for storage explicit (conscious) memories of facts and events.

Cerebellum

The "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory.

Brainstem

The oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; responsible for automatic survival functions.

Medulla

The base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing.

Reticular formation

A nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal and attention.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

A neurotransmitter that enables muscle action, learning, and memory. With Alzheimer's disease, ACh-producing neurons deteriorate.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter that influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion. Excess dopamine receptor activity is linked to schizophrenia; undersupply is linked to Parkinson's disease.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal. Undersupply is linked to depression.