ap psych unit 4 terms

Attributions

Explanations people make about the causes of behaviors and events. These can be internal (dispositional) or external (situational) Example - "She failed the test because she's lazy."

Dispositional Attributions

Attributing behavior to a person's inherent traits or personality Example - "She failed the test because she's lazy."

Situational Attributions

Attributing behavior to external circumstances Example - "She failed the test because she was sick."

Explanatory Style

A person's habitual way of explaining events, which can be optimistic or pessimistic

Optimistic Explanatory Style

Attributing negative events to external, unstable, and specific factors Example - "I failed this test because I didn't study enough, but I'll do better next time."

Pessimistic Explanatory Style

Attributing negative events to internal, stable, and global factors Example - "I failed because I'm bad at everything."

Actor/Observer Bias

The tendency to attribute others' behaviors to their personality (dispositional) but our own to the situation Example - "He tripped because he's clumsy, but I tripped because the floor was uneven."

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to overemphasize dispositional factors and underestimate situational ones when explaining others' behaviors Example - "She's late because she's irresponsible, not because there was traffic."

Self-Serving Bias

The tendency to attribute successes to internal factors and failures to external ones Example - "I passed the test because I'm smart, but I failed the next one because the teacher made it too hard."

Internal Locus of Control

Believing that personal actions determine outcomes Example - "If I study hard, I will get good grades."

External Locus of Control

Believing that external forces determine outcomes Example - "No matter how much I study, my teacher is unfair and will give me a bad grade."

Mere Exposure Effect

The tendency to develop a preference for things we are frequently exposed to Example - "After hearing a new song multiple times, I started liking it."

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

When beliefs about a person or situation lead to behaviors that cause the belief to come true Example - "If a teacher expects a student to succeed, they may give them more attention, leading to better performance."

Social Comparison

Evaluating oneself in relation to others

Upward Social Comparison

Comparing oneself to those who are better Example - "She's better at basketball than me, so I'll work harder."

Downward Social Comparison

Comparing oneself to those who are worse Example - "At least I did better on the test than my friend."

Relative Deprivation

Feeling disadvantaged when comparing oneself to others who have more Example - "I feel poor because my friends have more expensive clothes than me."

Stereotype

A generalized belief about a group Example - "All engineers are nerdy."

Cognitive Load

The amount of mental effort needed to process information

Prejudice

A negative attitude toward a group Example - "I don't like people from that city."

Discrimination

Acting unfairly toward a group Example - "Not hiring someone because of their race."

Implicit Attitudes

Unconscious biases that influence behavior Example - "Automatically assuming a doctor is male."

Just-World Phenomenon

The belief that people get what they deserve Example - "She's poor because she didn't work hard enough."

Out-Group Homogeneity Bias

Viewing members of other groups as all the same Example - "All people from that country act alike."

In-Group Bias

Favoring one's own group Example - "My school is better than all the others."

Ethnocentrism

Judging other cultures by one's own standards Example - "Our way of doing things is the best."

Belief Perseverance

Sticking to beliefs even when faced with contradictory evidence Example - "Even after seeing proof, he still believes the Earth is flat."

Confirmation Bias

Seeking information that supports one's beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence Example - "Reading only news that supports my political views."

Cognitive Dissonance

The discomfort from holding contradictory beliefs or behaviors Example - "I know smoking is bad, but I still do it."

Social Norms

Unwritten rules for behavior in society Example - "Shaking hands when meeting someone."

Social Influence Theory

The idea that people are influenced by others in their behaviors and decisions

Normative Social Influence

Conforming to gain approval Example - "Dressing like friends to fit in."

Informational Social Influence

Conforming because others might have the right answer Example - "Following a crowd in an unfamiliar city."

Persuasion

The process of changing attitudes through communication

Elaboration Likelihood Model

Explains how persuasion works through two routes

Central Route

Persuasion through logical arguments Example - "This car has the best safety ratings."

Peripheral Route

Persuasion through superficial cues Example - "A celebrity drives this car, so it must be good."

Halo Effect

The tendency to assume that a person with one positive trait has many others Example - "She's attractive, so she must be smart."

Foot-in-the-Door Technique

Asking for a small request before a larger one Example - "Can I borrow a pencil? Now can I borrow $5?"

Door-in-the-Face Technique

Asking for a large request first, then a smaller one Example - "Can I have $100? No? Okay, how about $10?"

Conformity

Changing behavior to match a group Example - "Wearing trendy clothes because others do."

Obedience

Following authority Example - "Doing what a teacher says."

Group Polarization

When group discussions strengthen extreme opinions Example - "A political debate makes everyone more radical."

Groupthink

The desire for harmony leads to poor decision-making Example - "Everyone agrees with the leader to avoid conflict."

Social Loafing

Exerting less effort in a group Example - "Not trying hard in a group project."

Deindividuation

Losing self-awareness in a group Example - "Rioting in a crowd."

Bystander Effect

People are less likely to help when others are around Example - "No one calls 911 in a busy street."

Psychodynamic Theory

Freud's theory that unconscious drives, childhood experiences, and inner conflicts shape personality

Unconscious Processes

Thoughts, desires, and memories hidden from awareness that influence behavior

Ego Defense Mechanisms

Psychological strategies to protect the ego from anxiety

Denial

Refusing to accept reality Example - "A smoker refuses to believe smoking causes cancer."

Displacement

Redirecting emotions to a safer target Example - "Yelling at a sibling after being scolded by a teacher."

Projection

Attributing one's own unacceptable feelings to others Example - "Accusing someone of being dishonest when you are lying."

Rationalization

Justifying behaviors with logical but false explanations Example - "I failed the test because the teacher hates me."

Reaction Formation

Acting opposite to true feelings Example - "Being overly nice to someone you dislike."

Regression

Reverting to an earlier behavior Example - "An adult throwing a tantrum."

Repression

Blocking distressing thoughts from consciousness Example - "Forgetting a traumatic event."

Sublimation

Channeling impulses into socially acceptable behavior Example - "Taking up boxing to release aggression."

Projective Tests

Psychological assessments that use ambiguous stimuli to reveal unconscious thoughts Example - "Rorschach Inkblot Test."

Preconscious Mind

Thoughts that are not currently in awareness but can be accessed

Unconscious Mind

The part of the mind containing hidden desires and conflicts

Humanistic Psychology

A perspective that emphasizes free will, self-growth, and personal fulfillment

Unconditional Regard

Accepting and valuing a person without conditions Example - "A parent loves their child no matter what."

Self-Actualizing Tendency

The drive to fulfill one's highest potential Example - "Pursuing a meaningful career despite obstacles."

Social-Cognitive Theory

The idea that personality is shaped by interactions between thoughts, behaviors, and the environment

Reciprocal Determinism

The concept that personality is influenced by the interplay between behavior, personal factors, and the environment Example - "A child who enjoys reading seeks out books, which strengthens their love for reading."

Self-Concept

The beliefs one has about oneself Example - "I see myself as a hardworking person."

Self-Efficacy

Confidence in one's ability to succeed Example - "I believe I can do well on this test if I study."

Self-Esteem

A person's overall sense of self-worth Example - "I feel good about myself because I am kind."

Trait Theories

The idea that personality consists of enduring characteristics

Big Five Theory

A widely accepted model that identifies five major personality traits

Agreeableness

Being compassionate and cooperative Example - "Helping a friend without expecting anything in return."

Openness to Experience

Being creative and curious Example - "Trying new foods when traveling."

Extraversion

Being outgoing and social Example - "Loving to meet new people."

Conscientiousness

Being responsible and organized Example - "Making a detailed schedule for studying."

Emotional Stability (Neuroticism)

The degree of emotional control and calmness Example - "Handling stress well without overreacting."

Personality Inventories

Standardized tests used to measure personality traits Example - "The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)."

Factor Analysis

A statistical method used to identify clusters of traits that correlate with each other

Superordinate Goals

Shared goals that require cooperation between groups to achieve, reducing conflict Example - "Rival sports teams work together to clean up a community park after a natural disaster."

Individualism

A cultural value that emphasizes personal independence, self-reliance, and individual achievements over group goals Example - "In the U.S., people are encouraged to pursue personal success, such as starting their own business."

False Consensus Effect

The tendency to overestimate how much others share our opinions and behaviors Example - "A student assumes that most of their classmates also dislike a teacher, even though many actually like them."

Social Reciprocity Norm

The expectation that people will return favors and acts of kindness Example - "If someone buys you lunch, you feel obligated to return the favor next time."

Social Debt

The feeling of obligation to return a favor after receiving help from someone Example - "A friend lends you money in a tough time, and later, you feel responsible for helping them when they need support."

Multiculturalism

A perspective that values diverse cultural backgrounds and encourages coexistence without requiring assimilation Example - "A school celebrates different cultural holidays to acknowledge the backgrounds of all students."

Burnout

A state of emotional, physical, and mental exhaustion caused by prolonged stress, often related to work or responsibilities Example - "A nurse working overtime for months feels drained, detached, and unable to concentrate on patients."

Social Facilitation

The tendency for people to perform better on simple or well-learned tasks when others are watching Example - "A runner sprints faster when competing in front of a cheering crowd than when training alone."

Prosocial Behavior

Actions intended to help or benefit others, often without expecting anything in return Example - "A person volunteers at a homeless shelter on weekends simply to help those in need."

Collectivism

A cultural value that prioritizes group goals over individual achievements, emphasizing harmony and loyalty Example - "In Japan, employees often make decisions based on what is best for the company rather than personal career advancement."

Social Responsibility Norm

The expectation that people should help those in need, regardless of personal gain Example - "People donate to charity even if they won't receive any recognition or benefit from doing so."

Altruism

Selfless concern for the well-being of others, often involving personal sacrifice Example - "A firefighter rushes into a burning building to save a stranger without considering their own safety."

Social Traps

Situations in which individuals or groups act in their own short-term interest, leading to long-term negative consequences Example - "Overfishing benefits individual fishermen in the short run, but depletes fish populations, harming the industry in the long term."

Industrial-Organizational (I/O) Psychologists

Psychologists who apply psychological principles to workplace environments to improve productivity, employee satisfaction, and organizational efficiency Example - "A company hires an I/O psychologist to improve employee motivation and reduce turnover rates."

Attentional Variables

Factors that influence how much attention a person gives to stimuli, affecting perception and behavior Example - "A student struggling to focus in class due to loud background noise is affected by attentional variables."

Diffusion of Responsibility

The tendency for individuals to feel less responsible for taking action when others are present Example - "In a crowded emergency, people assume someone else will call for help, leading to inaction."

Situational Variables

Environmental factors that influence behavior, including physical surroundings, social context, and time pressure Example - "A normally kind person acts aggressively when stuck in a high-pressure traffic jam."