Persuasion Exam 2

What is the definition of an Emotional Appeal?

An appeal to the audience’s emotions, motivations, values, needs, or emotional symbols to influence their attitudes or behaviors.

When are emotional appeals most effective?

Short-Term attitude change.

When are emotional appeals not effective?

Long-Term attitude change.

What are the different types of emotional appeals?

Fear, Anger, Warmth, Nostalgia, Needs, and Values.

What are Gass and Seiter’s definition of an Emotional Appeal?

External inducements often of an emotional nature designed to increase an individual’s drive to undertake some course of action.

Intrinsic Motivation

Internal desire or drive.

Extrinsic Motivation

External incentives or disincentives.

Fear Appeals

Persuasive messages designed to elicit fear to influence behavior.

EPPM (Danger Control)

Audience focuses on ways to reduce danger leading to constructive behavior change.

EPPM (Fear Control

The Audience fixates on the fear itself, becoming anxious or panicked, resulting in avoidance or denial making the appeal ineffective.

When are Fear Appeals effective?

Severity and Susceptibility are high, Perceived Efficacy is high (action will be effective in reducing threat)

When do Fear Appeals work best?

When listeners feel vulnerable to the threat, there are clear guidelines to avoid danger, action is seen as effective, and listeners believe they are capable of following recommended actions.

Anger Activism Model

Explains how anger can lead to persuasion.

When does anger lead to behavior change?

When the target audience agrees with the message, anger is intense, and the audience feels empowered.

What are some limitations to the Anger Activism Model?

Resistant audiences, backfires when aimed at opposing groups.

Appeal to Warmth Definition

Persuasive appeals that evoke feelings of comfort and affection.

What’s an example of an appeal to warmth?

“When you’re here, you’re family” (Olive Garden)

What are direct effects of appeals to warmth?

Creates positive associations and enhance brand loyalty.

Appeal to Nostalgia Definition

Persuasive method that evokes a sentimental longing for the past combining negative and positive emotions to persuade.

What are the effects of nostalgia on consumers?

Increases brand perception, boosts self esteem, encourages consumers more money.

When are nostalgia appeals particularly common?

Modern Marketing

Appeals to Needs (Maslow’s Hierarchy) Definition

Persuasive messages appealing to fundamental human needs.

What is the most important human need according to Maslow’s Hierarchy?

Physiological needs (food, water, shelter)

What is the least important need according to Maslow’s Hierarchy?

Self Actualization (Personal growth, creativity, self-fulfillment)

Appeal to Values Definition

Persuasive appeals grounded in core values and moral principles.

Moral Foundations Theory (Jonathan Haidt)

Harm/Care: Compassion and protection from suffering.

Fairness/Reciprocity: Justice, equality, and fair treatment.

Ingroup/Loyalty: Loyalty to one’s group, family, or nation.

Authority/Respect: Respect for traditions, laws, and leaders.

Purity/Sanctity: Valuing cleanliness, health, and morality.

What are some dangers of Emotion Producing Rhetoric?

Irrational Decision making, promotion of hate and conflict, ethical concerns.

Rational Argument Definition

Persuasion using evidence, reasoning, and logic.

What is Colloquial Reasoning?

“Aiming for the brain”

What is Central Processing?

Involves critical thinking, and evaluation of arguments. Requires factual, logical, and clear evidence.

When is Rational Argument most common?

Law, Public Debate, and Science.

Rational Argument and Emotional Appeals

Using a combination of these can enhance impact and persuasion for an argument.

Finding your Pillars (Lee Hartley Carter)

1. List All Potential Arguments:

   • Brainstorm every reason or piece of evidence that could persuade your audience.

2. Eliminate Counterproductive Arguments:

   • Cross off arguments that might reinforce audience objections or obstacles.

3. Identify Audience-Aligned Proof Points:

   • Circle arguments that align with what matters to your audience.

4. Group into Three Categories:

   • Cluster the proof points into three distinct categories.

   • Each category becomes a “pillar” supporting your argument.

5. Polish Your Language:

   • Refine the wording of your pillars to make them memorable and impactful.

Discovering your Master Narrative (Lee Hartley Carter)

1. Summarize Your Pillars in One Sentence:

   • Write a single, clear sentence that unites your three pillars into a cohesive message.

2. Identify Audience Relevance:

   • Ask yourself:

     • “What’s in it for my audience?”

     • “Why does this matter to them?”

3. Check Against Audience Research:

   • Ensure your message:

     • Overcomes audience barriers.

     • Addresses their needs.

     • Appeals to core values and emotions.

     • Can be delivered effectively.

4. Test Message Credibility (Michael Maslansky’s 4 P’s):

   • Plausible: Does it seem realistic and believable?

   • Positive: Is the message framed in an optimistic or constructive way?

   • Personal: Does it connect on a human level?

   • Plainspoken: Is it clear, concise, and accessible?

5. Test for Resonance:

   • Gauge how well the message resonates with stakeholders before broader distribution.

Deductive Reasoning

General to specific reasoning, moves from a rule to an example.

What’s the structure of Deductive Reasoning?

Syllogism - Major Premise (general rule or principle), Minor Premise (specific claim), Conclusion (logical outcome)

Which is an example of Syllogism?

All men are mortal.

Socrates is a man.

Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

Inductive Reasoning

Specific to General Reasoning, moves from examples to broader rules.

Reasoning by Analogy

Involved with inductive reasoning, assumes that what is true in one situation will be true in a similar situation.

Which is an example of Inductive Reasoning?

A particular medicine cured a few patients.

The medicine is effective for treating that condition.

Causal Reasoning Definition

Form of inductive reasoning that links causes to effects.

Which is an example of Causal Reasoning?

If you don’t wear sunscreen, you will get sunburnt.

What’s the biggest limitation to Causal Reasoning?

Correlation does not always imply causation.

Enthymeme Definition

A syllogism with an implied premise. Less formal but still logical.

Which is an example of an Enthymeme?

We cannot trust him because he has lied before. (People who have lied before are untrustworthy)

When are Enthymemes most useful?

Everyday reasoning and rhetoric.

What are the three basic elements of an argument?

Evidence Warrants, and Claims.

What are the four types of claims?

Facts, Judgements, Policies, and Definitions.

What are the five types of evidence?

Examples, explanations, comparisons, statistics, and testimonies.

How can you effectively present evidence?

Use credible sources, primary research, explain evidence, and make it concrete.

What’s an example of presenting evidence effectively?

Present financial data and then translating it into what it could buy or impact.

How can you make an effective argument?

Explain the stakes and impact, outcome over features, emphasize 3 E’s, distill your argument down to one key takeaway.

How can you explain the stakes and impact in an effective argument?

Highlight the consequences of the decision.

How can you emphasize out come over features in an effective argument?

Focus on benefits, results, or returns, not just technical details.

What are the 3 E’s?

Empathy, Energy, and Enthusiasm.

What is the most important thing in an effective argument?

Distilling your argument to one key takeaway.

Red Herring Fallacy

Irrelevant Distraction (going off topic)

Appeal to Tradition Fallacy

Assumes the old way is better

Straw Man Fallacy

Misrepresenting the argument to it’s weakest form.

Ad Hominem Fallacy

Attacking the person, not the argument.

Appeal to Ignorance Fallacy

“You can’t prove me wrong, so I must be right.”

Loaded Question Fallacy

Assumes guilt in the question. Asks multiple questions.

False Analogy Fallacy

Compares two unrelated things.

False Authority Fallacy

Uses unqualified individuals as experts.

Sweeping Generalization Fallacy

Applying a general rule to all cases.

False Dilemma Fallacy

Oversimplifies into two options.

Slippery Slope Fallacy

If A happens then Z will inevitably follow.

Ad Populum Fallacy

“Everyone believes it so it must be true”

Hasty Generalization Fallacy

Insufficient Evidence

Begging the Question Fallacy

Circular Reasoning

False Cause Fallacy

Mistakes correlation for causation.

When does Rational Argument Fail?

When an issue is tied to basic values, the audience has strongly held views, and the topic is highly complicated or the audience does not care about the topic, and no new data is presented.

When does Rational Argument Work?

When the audience is open-minded, the issue is not tied to deeply held values, and when new data is introduced.

Is Rational Argument Effective on its own?

No, it needs to be paired with storytelling and emotion.

What kind of change is Rational Argument effective for?

Long-term attitude change.

Why is Rational Argument the most ethical persuasion strategy?

It relies on facts and evidence rather than manipuation.

Universal Persuasion Law

High credibility sources are significantly more persuasive than low-credibility sources.

What entities focus on credibility?

Corporations, universities, gov’t agencies, social movements.

Impression Management Theory

People consciously or subconsciously attempt to influence other’s perceptions by controlling information.

Facework (Goffman)

A person’s social standing in the eyes of others. Efforts to maintain or restore dignity and avoid embarrassment.

What are the Three Primary Aspects of Credibility

Expertise, Trustworthiness, Goodwill

What are the Three Secondary Aspects of Crediblity?

Dynamism, Composure, Sociability

What are the Characteristics of Credibility?

Receiver based, situational, dynamic, and multidimensional

Stanley Milgram Experiment

People administer shocks by just following orders. Found people have a deep-seated sense of duty to authority figures. Adults will obey extreme commands if they perceive the source as legititmate.

Sleeper Effect

Over time, messages from low-credibility sources can become more persuasive. Audience remembers the message but forgets the discredited source.

Joe Girard - “World’s Greatest Salesman”

Built personal relationships with customers, sending 13 cards a year with message “I like you… Joe Girard”, gave customers I like you pin, etc.

The “Like Switch” (Jack Schafer)

States that the Friendship Formula is Proximity + Frequency + Duration + Intensity = Increased Liking

Halo Effect

Cognitive bias where positive impressions in one area influence overall perception. (attractive people, agreeing with people we like)

Kenneth Burke

Described humans as “storytelling animal”, said storytelling is a core driver of decision-making.

Story Telling Narratives can:

Add interest, aid memory, simplify, create emotional responses

Walter Fisher’s Narrative Paradigm Theory

Stories are primary in human communication. People explain and justify behavior through storytelling.

“Good Reasons” Concept

Narratives give us “good reasons” for believing or acting in certain ways.

And-But-Therefore Framework (Randy Olson)

Powerful framework for structuring compelling narratives. And (Agreement), But (Contradiction), Therefore (Consequence).

Example of And-But-Therefore Framework

And: The company was profitable and expanding

But: The market shifted, and they began to lose revenue

Therefore: They restructured their business model to survive

Monomyth (Hero’s Journey)

Universal pattern found in myths, legends, and modern storytelling.

Normative Influence

Humans are hard-wired to be tribal, crave belonging, acceptance, and being liked.

Examples of Normative Influence

Laughing at a joke, holding the door, standing for the national anthem, tipping, etc.

Social Proof

People conform because they believe “Everyone is doing it”

Jar of Beans Study (Arthur Jenness)

Participants guess how many beans are in a jar, most participants shifted their estimates toward the group consensus.

Werther Effect (Phillips 1974)

Copycat suicides increase following media coverage of suicides or when inspired by individuals people relate to.